» 2. LOGGING TECHNIQUES AND MEASUREMENTS 2.1, CLASSIFICATION OF LOG MEASURE- MENTS In this book we are confining our interest to logs that are used for the evaluation of the rock and its fluid content. This will include both open-hole and cased-hole measurements. ‘Table 2-1 shows these measurements grouped into two broad categories; those arising from natural (ot spontaneous) phenomena, and those arising from in- duced phenomena. The first group simply employs a suitable detector to obtain the measurement; the second group requires an appropriate type of emitter to “excite” a particular response in the formation, in addition to a detection system. 2.1.1, Natural phenomena (a) Natural gamma radioactivity, which can be measured: (1) as a total gamma-ray count-rate, as in TABLE 24 {A clasifcaton of log measurements 1. Nara or spontaneous phenomena Basic equipment Single detector (passive system) ‘Spontancous potential SP [Natural gammacray activity Tota oR Speetometry NGS * (spectelog) 2. Physical properties masured by inducing a respons rom the formation Basi equipment source (or emiter)+ detector (+), Resistivity: (@) Long-spacing devies: ron-focued focused (8) Micro-devices ‘non-focused focused (6) Ultea long: spacing devices Dielectric constant eleetomagoetic propagation) Hydrogen index (using neutron bombardment) the classical gamma-ray log: and (2) as count-rates corresponding to selected energy bands. as in the natural gamma-ray spectrometry log (NGS * or Spec- tralog). (b) Spontaneous potential: the S.P. log. (c) Formation temperature: the temperature log. ‘We should also include in this category: (d) Hole-diameter: the caliper log, which in fact is ‘a measurement strongly related to the mechanical or chemical properties of the rock. {@) Inclination of the hole: the deviation log. which measures both the angle of the hole from the vertical. and its direction (or azimuth). 2.1.2. Physical properties measured by inducing re- sponses from the formation (A) Electrical measurements, by the emission of an electrical signal: Mak of Schlumberger Temperature r Hole Diameter CAL Deviation DEV formal. Lateral ES LL. SFL* ML* MLL ULSEL 7 errs N, NE.NT*,SN(P)* cna) PL’ MSFL* [Neutron capture erossection, oF thermal neuton decay time (neutron lifetime) TDT *, NLL. GST* Photoeletrc absorption cross-section Electron density Relatation time of proton spin (nuclear magnetic resonance) Elemental composition (induced gamma-ray spectroscopy) ‘Acoustic velocity Formation dip Mechanical properties (amplitude of acoustic waves) 7 Mark of Schlumberger Lor FDC*,LDT#,D,CD NML IGT? 6st SV.SL. LSS", DM. CDM *, HDT *, SHDT* ADL"@) (1) Resistivity or conductivity: (@) using an electrode system: electrical survey (ES), laterolog (LL) *, micro- log (ML) *, mierolaterolog (MLL) *, spherically focused log (SFL) *, mi- cro-spherically focused log (MSFL) *, high-resolution dipmeter_ (HDT) *, (SDT) + (b) using inductive coils: induction log (db. (2) Dielectric constant, using inductive coils: electromagnetic propagation tool (EPT) *. Nuclear measurements, by the irradiation of the formation with gamma rays or neutrons: (Q) Density. Gamma rays are emitted from a source. The Compton scattered gamma ays retuming from the formation are detected: formation density or gamma- gamma log. (FDC *, D, CD, LDT *). Photo-electric absorption coefficient (re- lated to the mean Atomic Number). This is a low energy gamma-ray phenomenon and is measured in addition to density in the lithodensity log (LD) *. (3) The hydrogen index. The formation is continuously bombarded by high energy neutrons, which are slowed by successive elastic collisions with atomic nuclei, par- ticularly those of hydrogen, ‘There are several techniques in use, in- volving the detection of: (a) Thermal neutrons, ie. those neutrons that have been slowed down to ther- mal energy: neutron-thermal neutron logging (CNL *, NT). (b) Gamma rays emitted when these thermal neutrons are captured by atomic nuclei: neutron-gamma_log- ging (N). (© Epithermal neutrons i.e. those new. trons not yet slowed down to thermal energy neutron-epithermal neutron. logging NE, SNP *, CNL * (epithermal). (4) Macroscopic thermal neutron capture cross-section (3). High-energy neutrons are emitted in short bursts. The rate of decay of the thermal neutron population in the formation is measured between bursts. This is a neutron capture phenom- enon: thermal neutron decay time (TDT)* or neutron lifetime logging (NLL). Q + Mark of Schlumberger (8) Elemental composition. Gamma rays emitted from interactions between high energy neutrons and certain atomie nuclei are analyzed spectroscopically. There are three types of interaction important for induced gamma ray spectroscopy. (a) Fast neutron or inelastic interactions: inelastic gamma ray spectrometry (IGT, GST), carbon-oxygen logging. (b) Neutron capture: capture gamma ray spectrometry (GST, IGT), chlorine logging, (©) Activation and subsequent decay of radio-isotopes: activation logging, high resolution spectrometry (HRS) (6) Proton spin relaxation time. A pulsed DC magnetic field momentarily aligns the uclear magnetic moments of the pro- tons. After the pulse, the time required for the protons of the formation to stop precessing about the Earth's magnetic field is measured. This spin relaxation time can be used to evaluate residual oil, ‘Nuclear magnetic resonance log (NML). (©) Acoustic measurements—an acoustic signal is sent into the formation. We may measure: (1) The velocity of a compressional wave, from the transit time between two re~ ceivers: sonic log (SV, SL, BHC *). The shear-wave velocity can also be mea- sured. (2) The transit time from a surface gun to a downhole geophone: well seismic «wsT) * (3) The amplitude of a selected peak or trough in the acoustic wave-train arriving at a receiver. The compressional or shear-wave arrivals may be of interest: amplitude logging (A), (4) The relative amplitudes of the various components of the wave-train, the config- uration of the wave-train; variable den- sity logging (VDL) *, sonic waveform photography, well seismic (WST), bore- hole televiewer (BHTV). 2.2, PROBLEMS SPECIFIC TO WELL-LOG MEASUREMENTS, Although we would like logs to be direct measure- ments of the formation, log responses are invariably affected by the presence of the well-bore, certain near-hole phenomena associated with the drilling of the well, and the geometry of the logging tool itself. Operational problems may be posed by temperature and pressure in the well2.2.1, Borehole effects, invasion 22.1.1. Drilling mud ‘The influence of the drilling mud on a log re~ sponse depends on several factors 2. LI. Hole diameter ‘The larger the hole, the greater the volume of fluid around the logging tool, and the stronger its effect on the log reading. Above a certain hole-size, there may be very little or no signal from the formation, Well- logging companies always specify a recommended maximum hole-size, in addition to the minimum size for safe passage of the tool 22.1.2. Mud-type and mud-density ‘Whether or not a certain log can or should be run ‘depends on the type of drilling mud in the hole. For instance, acoustic signals are poorly transmitted in an air-filled hole; oil oF air will not conduct current; a salt-saturated mud, because of its high conductivity, will contribute a large borehole signal to the induc- tion log; (on the other hand, it improves conduction between electrodes and formation, which is advanta- geous for the focussed resistivity devices). Mud-salinity affects conductivity, resistivity, hy- drogen index measurements, among others. The den- sity of the mud influences the absorption of gamma rays. Charts are available to correct for these borehole effects 22.1.2. Invasion Ignoring for the moment wells drilled with air or emulsion, the functions of the drilling mud are: a) cooling of the drill-bit. (b) preventing the hole from collapsing inwards. (0) preventing flew of formation fluids (an ex- treme case of which is the “blow-out”). (d) bringing the cuttings up to surface. Fig. 2:1. The formation of mud-eake on the hole-wall 3 In principle, the mud is kept at a slightly higher pressure than the formation pore-fluids, by careful control of the mud-density. Because of this pressure difference, there is a tendency for the mud to in- filtrate porous, permeable beds. This is known as invasion. The solid particles in the mud are usvally larger than the pores, and only the liquid content can invade the formation. So during drilling, there is « build-up of mud-cake on the wall of the hole wherever the mud-fltrate infiltrates. Eventually the mud-cake forms an almost impermeable membrane which im- pedes further invasion (Fig. 2-1). ‘The mud-filtrate displaces some of the formation fluid. The depth of invasion depends on the porosity and permeability of the rock, the “water-loss” factor of the mud (the quantity of water which is liberated from the mud), and the pressure difference between well-bore and formation. For a given mud-type, in contact with a formation of a certain permeability and wettability, under @ given pressure differential, the depth of invasion is larger the smaller the porosity—we consider the volume of filtrate to be constant for the prescribed set of conditions—the total volume of rock necessary to contain this filtrate increases as its porosity de- Figure 2-2 is a schematic representation of the invasion profile. The reservoir rock near the hole does not contain the same fluids as before invasion. Changes have occurred both in the nature of the fluids and their proportions. Since the logging tools will always read at least some of the invaded zone signal, these changes must be taken into account when ‘attempting to evaluate the fluid saturation of the virgin zone, which represents the reservoir at large. ‘There is no perfect solution to this problem. A satisfactory approach models the invasion fluid dis- tribution as a step-profile (shown in Fig. 2-3) be- tween the flushed zone of resistivity, R,g, and the Virgin reservoir, of resistivity R,. The ‘resistivities measured by tools of different depths of investigation are combined to solve for the saturations of the two zones (Syay Sy Fespectively) 2.2.1.3. Casing and cement ‘The presence of casing and cement precludes cer- tain logging measurements (resistivity for instance). Generally, only nuclear (and some acoustic) measure- ments can be made through casing. 2.2.1.4, Fluid mobility Although a troublesome phenomenon from a re~ servoir evaluation point of view, invasion can be used as an indication of the mobility of the reservoir2 inveed sae, Un Mut cate Fig, 22. The distribution of Maids and resistivities near the well-boe fluids. Hydrocarbon mobility is its ease of displace- ment The difference between the saturations S,,, and S, calculated in the invasion and virgin zones is the quantity of hydrocarbon displaced by the filtrate. The producible oil index, POL, (also called the movable oil index) is defined as: POI =4(5,,- 5.) (Qa) If we are justified in assuming that the displacement of hydrocarbon during filtrate invasion is representa- Fig. 2-3. Simplified model of the fli and ress of Fig. 22tive of what will occur during subsequent production by water-drive, then the POI is a useful index of probable recoverability. Certainly, if the difference (Soo = Sy) is small, itis likely that the hydrocarbon mobility is poor, and recoverability will be low *. Conversely. a large difference promises good recover- ability ‘The recoverability factor. f, is defined as f= (Suu~ Sa/AV~ Su) (22) which is simply the recoverable fraction of the initial hydrocarbons in place. 2.2.2. The effeet of tool geometry 2.2.2.1. Tool diameter, excentralization ‘There is a minimum hole diameter (or casing inner diameter) through which a tool of a certain size may safely pass. For most logging services, there exists a range of tool diameters appropriate to the common hole-sizes, including special “slim-hole” equipment. The logging tool may take any of three positions relative to the hole axis (Fig. 2-4); centralized, ex- centralized against the wall (8=0), and. stood-off from the wall by a small amount (3 = constant). Correct tool positioning is mandatory for some mea- surements, and is ensured by mechani cr several multi-armed centralizers (BHC); one-armed excentralizer (CNL, FDC); rubber stand-off (indue- tion logging). This equipment becomes even more important in deviated wells, where the logging sonde would otherwise tend to lie along the low side of the hole. (In fact, wells are rarely perfectly vertical.) ‘The coefficient of excentralization is defined as: (= 28d, dt) (22) ‘cis 1.0 for a perfectly centred tool sonde, and 0 when it is against the hole wall. 2.22.2. Spacing of sensors, depth of investigation Logging tools do not take point readings, the signals they measure come from a finite volume of The uid mobility is essentially a function of is relative permea- bility. IF this i zero, the mobility is 2er0, In the case of high permeability (and therefore high mobility) the displaced hydro ‘arhoa will ften return rapidly once mud- Hae sunrace SS = renee TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT) Fig. 2.10, The variation of tompeatre wih depth, ourtesy of Schumer PRESSURE (Kolm) rH +t oa a= AEH HT i PRESSURE (P.S.1) Fig. 2-11, The variation of hydrostatic pressure with depth,Fig. 212. Schematic representation of a logging “setup” on a lands 2.3.2, Cable ‘The logging cable fulfills three functions: (a) run- ning-in and pulling out the tool, and control of tool speed: (b) clectrical interface between the downhole logging tool and the surface processing and recording, ‘equipment; and (c) depth measurement. 2.3.2.1. Tool transport ‘The cable has an external, load-carrying armour ‘consisting of two layers of helical steel winding wound in opposite senses. A multicable is typically 15/32” (118 mm) in diameter, and a_monocable 1/32” (8.5 mm). The cable has the following physical characteristies (quantities refer to multi-cable): (a) It can support as much as 8 tons of tension at surface. However, non-elastic deformation (and rup- ture of the conductors) will occur at considerably lower tensions. In practice, tensions higher than 3-4 tons (For a logging tool weight of 1500 Ib) are rarely encountered. (b) Iv is able to pass round relatively small pulleys ‘or sheave-wheels, typically 4 ft in diameter, mounted in the rig-structure (Fig, 2-12). (c) The insulation of the conductor wires must not be able to extrude between armour windings, even at several thousand psi of pressure (several tens of megapascals). (q) It must resist abrasion by rocks, and corrosion (saline muds, gas. tc) » ‘The life of a cable generally runs to two or three hundred descents in moderate operating conditions. 2.3.2.2. Conductor of electrical signals Monocable: control signals and power from surface panels must share the single conductor wire with perhaps several channels of measured data from downhole, requiring special transmission modes. ‘Multiconductor cable (Hepta-cable) (Fig. 2-19): the seven copper conductors are each insulated by poly- propylene, teflon, rubber, ete, jackets, The insulation, better than 10 M@ at surface, must remain effective at high temperatures. Power, commands and data are transmitted on combinations of conductors in such a way as to minimize signal attenuation and “cross- talk” among channels, Signal distortion is kept to a minimum despite the considerable distance of transmission (as much as 26,000 ft or 8000 m) and high temperatures involved (175-200°C). Signal frequencies up to 200 kHz are used. ‘The following extract from “The Electrical Log- ging Cable” by B. Chauve (Said, Paris 1977) lists some of the electrical properties of a rubber insulated cable: ~ Resistance of conductor wire at 20°C, 3641.5 ance with respect to armour: 300 MQ/km at 20°C 2 MO/km at 100°C 0.1 M@/km at 150°C 0.04 M2/km at 175°C Capacitance to armour (rubber in 0.263 + 0.05 wF /km at 1000 Hz. ~ Capacitance between two adjacent conductors < 0.03 4 /km. ~ Dielectric breakdown potential > 1000 V at 50 Hz for 2 minutes. ~ Attenuation of signal for a standard cable length km) Tab at 1 ki 30 db at 10 kHz 55 db at 100 kHz 90 db at 200 kHe lation) 2.3.2.3. Depth measurement Film and tape movement are governed by cable motion, which is transmitted by a calibrated Spooler wheel (F in Fig. 2-15) to mechanical or electrical drive systems, which permit a choice of tape speeds cor depth scales on film. ‘The cable is marked magnetically every 100° or 25 m under constant tension. These marks are de- tected as the cable passes the spooler device (F, Fig. 2-15) and serve as the reference for precise depth(OSU-F WITH WINCH DRUM ATTACHMENT Fig. 2-14, An offshore logging unit (courtesy of Schlumberger).OLS Fig. 215, Sectional view ofa logging ruck reproduced by courtey of Sehlumbergs. control, permitting corrections to be made for spooler ‘wheel inaccuracy. The cable has a very low stretch coefficient in its normal operating range: clas stretch under logging tensions is small, and is cor~ rected automatically, or manually by a hand-crank adjustment. 23.24. The “bridle” Certain clectrode devices require the use of a “bridle”, which is a length of deca-cable, insulated con the outside, with wo lead electrodes which serve Fig. 2:16. Rear view of a logging tuck, showing the eable and spooler (courtesy of Schlumberger. as remote returns (Fig. 2-20a). The bridle is con- nected to the cable by a quick-connection consisting. ‘of two rope-sockets clamped in a split-shell, the “torpedo”. Figure 2-20b shows the bridle head, which connects electrically and mechanically to the logging tool, Fig. 217 A view inside the truck, showing the loging panel, tape recorder (tp) and part of the camera (right) (couresy of Sehlam- herseMAGNETIC TAPE UNIT ——— GENERAL ELECTRONIC — our OPTICAL ELecTRONIcs — - onir CENTRAL PROCESSOR — UNIT Woot CENTRAL PROCESSOR GniT Wo: 2 VENTILATION BLOWER — ~~ unir KEYBOARD / PAINTER UNIT Fig. Most logging tools dispense with the bridle. In this case, a head similar to the one in Fig. 2-20b, is connected directly to the cable, using a torpedo quick-connection, The logging head contains the important weak- point, which permits the cable to be pulled off a stuck tool prior to a fishing job. 23.25. The “fish” This is a remote electrode made out of lead, con- nected to the logging panel by a long insulated wire, via a truck installation. It is usually buried in damp earth, the mud-pit, or lowered into the sea, sufi- Fig. 2:19. Section of a muli-conductor cable (reprodused by courtery of Schlumberse). CARTRIDGE TAPE UNIT OPTICAL FILM UNIT TOOL INTERFACE UNIT OPTICAL MONITOR uni TOOL POWER UNIT COMPUTER AUXILIARY UNIT 1, Schlumberger’s CSU’ —a view of the computers. tape units and optical display section (courtesy of Schlumberger. ciently far from electrical sources to be at zero poten- tial. It is needed as the reference electrode-at-infinity for the SP, and for the current return of the LLD (deep laterolog). The fish is not strictly a common ‘ground return, and is insulated from the truck chassis, and cable armour. 2.3.3, The logging tool Logging tools vary in complexity from a simple electrode-carrying mandrel, to a sophisticated system of electronic circuits, enclosed in a pressure-resistant ‘metal housing and capable of operating at high tem- peratures. All tools consist at least of a detector, receiver or sensor. For measurements of induced phenomena (2.12) there will also be a source or emitter. These components are mounted in the logging sonde, which ‘may also contain a hydraulic or mechanical system (for opening and closing the arms of a pad-type tool, for instance), and some electronics (preamplifier, power-transformer Fig. 2-21a), ‘The sonde is generally attached below an elec- tronic cartridge, which carries in a protective housing the electronic modules or hardware for the downhole instrument, and which has a multiple role: (a) Power supply to the sonde emitter system (if necessary), and control of the timing and characteris- tics of the emitted signaloe Fg. 220, a The bridle (nate the cletodes, ead and part of the suck conection) Te idle (b) Power supply to the detector or receiver system if necessary. (©) Filtering and amplification of the incoming signal, analog-to-digital conversion, scaling and so on, (@) Transmission of the signal up the cable, control of telemetry system, et. (e) Power supply and control of any sonde mecha- nical operations (eg. opening or retraction of the dipmeter arms (HDT) shown in Fig. 19-4a). a Where several tools are being run in combination, each of the sondes and cartridges in the tool-string thas a pass-through facility for the signals to or from tools lower in the string. Each sonde-cartridge set can be connected electri- cally and mechanically to the bridle or cable head by 4 quick-connect system consisting of pins and sockets, and a threaded ring (Fig. 2-21b). As we discussed in 2.2.2.1, (exkcentralizers or stand-offs may be attached to the sonde and cartridge, 2.3.4, Recording equipment 2.34.1. Photographic recorder (Fig. 2-22) This is usually a nine-galvanometer system, record- ing on two films. Each galvanometer mirror deflects a light-beam, assigned to a log measurement, onto both films. The deflection of the beam varies with the ‘magnitude of the logging signal; up to nine measure- ‘ments can be recorded. Each film is drawn from its lighttight supply can, ‘across an aperture, where it is exposed 0 the galvanometer beams, and into its receiving can, The ‘spooler wheel and a drive mechanism transmit the able motion to the two films. As the cable moves. the rate at which the “upper” and “lower” films advance is governed by a gear-reduction which pro- Vides depth-scale options of 1/1000, 1/500, 1/200. 1/100, 1/40 and 1/20. For most purposes. the upper film is run on a small scale like 1/1000, and the ower at 1/200. Although the same traces are played onto both films, certain of them can be suppressed from either film if desired. Cathode-ray and electronic camera systems are gradually replacing these galvanometer cameras. 2.3.4.2. Magnetic tape recorder (Fig. 2-23) With the advent of multiple tool combinations containing several sensors, more data can be sent to surface than a 9-trace optical recorder can handle. Magnetic tapes permit many more channels of information to be recorded, and offer several other advantages! (1) Both raw and functioned log data (such as raw count-rates, and computed porosity from the CNL) are recorded, in addition to various tool operational data such as temperature and current level (2) Playback capabilities permit changes in optical log presentation to be made, recalibration, function- ing of raw data, and so on. This can be performed at the well-site with the computerized logging unit, or at the log computing centre, (3) Computerized interpretation programs can be run on the logs, permitting rapid and continuousFig. 2-21. a. Part of the complex electronic section of logging vonde (courtxy of Schlumberger b. An eleetoniccurtdge removed from the presuteshousing. showing the circuitry and an intermediate mult-pin cnmnecting head (courtesy of Sclumberesr) evaluation of data. The computerized logging unit (4) Data can be transmitted by telephone or permits well-site interpretations to be made im- radio-telephone from the well-site to a distant office ‘mediately after the survey. or computing centre. Fig, 2.22. The photographic recorder (courtesy of Schlumberger.Fig. 223. Magnetic tpe recorder (courtesy of Schlumberger) Fig. 224, Some ofthe combination Jogging tool-strings. (reproduced by couresy of Schlumberger, 1974),ALWAYS LINER uinean 0 Fig. 2:26. The threce most common tack salings 2.3.5. Tool combinations Some of the combination services presently offered by Schlumberger are shown in Fig. 2-24. Appendix | contains a more general list of the services of Schlum. berger and the other logging companies. Schlumberger is at present developing the possibil- ity of combining any desired number and types of tools, subject only to operational considerations such A log headingas length and weight, It should be noted that in very long tool combinations, the upper tools may not be able to enter a zone of interest too near the bottom of, the well. In such a situation, it will be necessary either to drill deeper, or run a shorter tool-string. 2.3.6. Memorization Where several tools are in combination, it is neces sary (o store in a memory the readings of each tool as it passes a given depth, and to discharge this memory ‘only when the last sensor reaches that depth. In this way all filmed and taped data are recorded on depth, This is performed by a multi-channel memorizer. 2.4, LOG PRESENTATION The variations in parameters being measured are recorded on film and tape as a function of depth. The film is developed, or the tape played back, 10 produce the log, which may be an opaque or transparent print. Fig, 2-25 is an example ‘The API * standard grid presentation used by all logging companies consists ofa left-hand track (Track 1) 64 cms wide, a depth-track 1.9 ems wide, and two right-hand tracks, each 6.4 cms wide (Tracks 2 and 2. Track 1 is always scaled linearly into 10 “large divisions”. (A “small division” is 1/10 of a “large division”, ie. 1/100 track-width). Tracks 2 and 3 may be both linear (Fig. 2-26 upper) both logarith mic, covering two decades each (Fig, 2-26 middle), or a mixture of logarithmic and linear (Fig, 2-26 lower) with Track 2 serving for resistivity measurement, Track 3 for sonic, for example. Certain old resistivity logs employed a “hybrid” rid which was linear in resistivity over the left half af one track (0-50 2m, for instance). and linear in conductivity over the right half (20 mmho-0 mmho, corresponding to 50-26 $2m, in this case). The depth scaling is chosen according to the pur- pose of the log. 1/1000 and 1/500 scales (respec- tively 1.2” per 100 ft, and 2.4” per foot) are used for quick overview of the entire logged interval, and for correlation (with a lithological record for instance). 1/200 and 1/100 are the conventional scales used for reservoir evaluation. The 1/40 is common for the micro-focussed resistivity logs to take advantage of their fine bed resolution. Optical correlation of dipmeter curves requires a 1/20 (60% per 100 ft) sealing. Note that in North America, a sealing of 1/1200 (V" per 100 ft) replaces 1/1000, and so on; thus the * American Pevoleum Insitute a 1/200 scale (6” per 100 ft) becomes 1/240 (S” per 100 ft). This is called the “decimal foot” system, as opposed to the “duodecimal foot”. The log heading (Fig. 2-27) displays all relevant information about the well and the logging opera tion: well-name, company, field, well coordinates, bitsize, mud data, data logged, type of equipment i Fig. 228 A componite log presentation obtained with CSU.* used, calibrations, plus any special remarks concern- now also possible to play back a number of logs onto ing the job. 4 single film, with the desired coding of traces, shad- Figure 2-28 is a composite log, made up of several__ing of separations between traces, and so on, at the logs side by side and on depth. With the CSU it is well site. Fig. 2-29, Example of a log with repeat section and calibration tails@ aa oes ane L0G PROCESSING CENTER REMOTE TERMINAL, wast i se [ egal” eae vel emcee 1 ‘res peo ‘ae L_* Beer econees as EES Rie tee ne | o mua Nee Men “tation Tos roses eewreR neue 4 | waine = | eae | | 2 Fig. 2.30, a. Log tansmission by telephone (courtesy of Schlumberger). b. Log transmission by radio and telephone (courtesy of Schlumberger °0 2.5, REPEATABILITY AND CALIBRATIONS (sce Appendix 5 for more details) At the end of a Jog, a repeat section and calibra- tion tail are usually attached (Fig. 2-29, right). The repeat section verifies that the tool is functioning consistently. For radio-active logs, several repeat sec~ tions may be run for subsequent stacking (averaging) to reduce statistical variations (e.g. NGS and TD). A calibration record is made on film and tape before and after the survey, to show that the equip- ment was correctly adjusted, and that no drift in adjustment has occurred during the log. For certain tools, a “master calibration” is made at the workshop prior to the logging operation, using laboratory equipment. The wellsite calibration repeats this ad- justment using portable calibration “jigs” (FDC, CNL, GR... Appendix 5). Other tools have their own internal calibrators (IL, LL,...), and may be ad- justed while down-hole. 2.6, DATA TRANSMISSION ‘Taped data can be transmitted by telephone, or radio and telephone (Fig. 2-30) to a log computing centre or company office if quick decisions, or rapid interpretation, are to be made away from the well-site, 2.7. REFERENCES, Aland, L, and Martin, M, 1976, Schlumberger: Histoire dune “Technique. Bergr-Levraull Pais Amps. 1, 1964, Engineering concepts uscfl i oi finding, Bull "Am. Assoe. Pet. Geol, vol. 48 2). waar, G.V., 1969. Deliaic and Shallow Marine Deposit [LMJ U, van Straten, ed, Ehevier, Amsterdam. ‘Chombatt, LG., 1989. Reconnaissance et evaluation des forma ions par diagraphieselecrigues et nuléaires.Techaip, Pars © ‘Choquette, PW. and Pray, L.C.. 1970, Geologic nomenclature and ‘lassification of porosity im sedimentary carbonates. Bull. Ar, ‘Assce. Pet, Geol, $8 (2) Clavier. C. Coates, G. and Dumanoit, J 1977. The theoretiea! ‘and experimental basis for the “dual water” model for the imterpretaton of shly sands. Soc. Pet Eng. IME. Pap. No 6859, Dadone, R, 1988. Diagraphis ifferees Tome 1 des “Techniques ‘Fexploration profonde dans la recherche du petrol". Technp, Pans, Desbrandes, R. 1968, Théori et interpret TTechnip, Paris De Wite, L, 1980. Relations between resistivities and Mud con teats of porous rocks, Oil Gas J, August 24 langrin, J. and Chapelle. 1961, Le parole. Techni, Pats Guillemot, J. 1964. Cours de Geologie du Pétole. Techaip. Par. Guyod, H., 1952, Electeical Well Logging. Fundamentals, Hows Guyod, H., 1969. Geophysical Well Loasing, Guyod. Houston. Lynch, EJ, 1962. Formation Evaluation, Harper & Row, New York Martin, ML, 1987, Possibiités atuelles des méthodes de diagra es elcirigues et nucéaies.Techoip, Paris Miliot,G., 1969. Geologie des argiles. Masson, Pars. Patchet. 1G. 1975. An investigation of shale conductivity SPWLA, 16th Am. Log. Symp. Trans, paper V Perrodon, A., 1966. Geologie du petole, Presses Univ. Frag. Pars. Pieson, SJ, 1963. Handbook of Well Log Analysis for Oil and Gas, Formation Evaluation. Prentice Hall, New York Schlumberger, 1959. Etudes des sondages par Tes médhodes Schlumberger. document 8. Log interpretation: Val. 1. Prine piles 1972; Vol, Ik Applications 1974: Chars 1979. So. Pet Eng. AIME, 1958. Pevoleam Transactions, vol. 1: Well log- ing Timur, A. 1968. An investigation of permeability. porosity and residual water saturation relationship for sandstone reservoirs. Log Analyst. 9 (4. Waxman, MI. and Smits, L1.M., 1968 Electrical conductivities ‘in ol-beuring shaly sands 5. Soc. Pet Eng. § (2) ‘M.RJ. 1957. The Fundamentals of Elect Log Interpre: tation. Academie Pres, New Yark Wyllie, M.RJ. and Rose, W.D,, 1950, Some theoretical considera ions related to the quantitative evaluation of the physical characteristics of reservoir rock fom electrical log data. J. Pet Technol, 189 des dingrapies Wot