Module - II

Measurement is an important subsystem of a system. Its main function is to collect the information
on system status and to feed it to the micro-processor(s) for controlling the whole system.

Measurement system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices. For a system
designer it is quite difficult to choose suitable sensors/transducers for the desired application(s). It is
therefore essential to learn the principle of working of commonly used sensors/transducers.

Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the production
operations as well as process monitoring activities. Sensor technology has the following important
advantages in transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one.

Sensor

It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being measured.
According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined as “ A device which provides
a usable output in response to a specified measurand. ” Here, the output is usually an „electrical
quantity' and measurand is a „physical quantity, property or condition which is to be measured'.

Transducer

It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related change
or an element which converts a specified measurand into a usable outputby using a transduction
principle.

It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to another form.

Sensor/transducers specifications

Transducers or measurement systemsare not perfect systems. system design engineer must know
the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or measurement system to properly assess its
performance. These are a number of performance related parameters of a transducer or
measurement system. These parameters are called as sensor specifications.

Sensor specifications inform the user about deviations from the ideal behavior of the sensors.
Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.

Range

The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. Thus, for example, a
thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25-225°C.

Span

The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus, the above-
mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200°C.

Error

Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the quantity
being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when the actual
displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is - 0.2 mm.
Accuracy

The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement result and a
true value of the measurand. It is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full–
scale deflection.

Sensitivity

Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to the per unit
change in input value that causes the output change.For example, a general purpose thermocouple
may have a sensitivity of 41 µV/°C.

Nonlinearity

Figure 2.1 Non-linearity error

The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a sensor from the
ideal curve. Figure 2.1 shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least
squares fit, line and the actual measured or calibration line. Linearity is often specified in terms
of percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:

Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input (2.1)

The static nonlinearity defined by Equation 2.1 is dependent upon environmental factors, including
temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. Therefore it is important to know under
what conditions the specification is valid.

Hysteresis

Figure 2.2 Hysteresis error curve

 The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in output at any
measurement value within the sensor's specified range when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter. Figure 2.2 shows the hysteresis error
might have occurred during measurement of temperature using a thermocouple. The hysteresis
error value is normally specified as a positive or negative percentage of the specified input range.

Resolution

Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be detected in
the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the full-scale reading or in
absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm and it
provides an output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2
mm.

Stability

Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a constant input
over a period of time. The term „drift‟ is used to indicate the change in output that occurs over a
period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range output.

Dead band/time

The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no
output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application of an input until
the output begins to respond or change.

Repeatability

It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of same input value.
It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:

Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100/full range (2.2)

Response time

Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of the
measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output range for which the
response time is defined.

Classification of sensors

Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as measurand,
application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand and thermodynamic
considerations. Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications in manufacturing is as
follows.

A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors

o Potentiometer
o Strain-gauged element
o Capacitive element
o Differential transformers
o Eddy current proximity sensors
o Inductive proximity switch
o Optical encoders
o Pneumatic sensors
o Proximity switches (magnetic)
o Hall effect sensors
B. Velocity and motion
o Incremental encoder
o Tachogenerator
o Pyroelectric sensors
C. Force
o Strain gauge load cell
D. Fluid pressure
o Diaphragm pressure gauge
o Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
o Piezoelectric sensors
o Tactile sensor
E. Liquid flow
o Orifice plate
o Turbine meter
F. Liquid level
o Floats
o Differential pressure
G. Temperature
o Bimetallic strips
o Resistance temperature detectors
o Thermistors
o Thermo-diodes and transistors
o Thermocouples
o Light sensors
o Photo diodes
o Photo resistors
o Photo transistor

Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object.
Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to some reference
point.

Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object has moved
with in particular critical distance of a transducer.
 Displacement sensors

Potentiometer Sensors

Figure 2.3 Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear displacement

Figure 2.3 shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor employed to measure the
linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works on the principle of
conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a resistive element
and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body, acting as a movable
electric contact.

The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using

 a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)

 a moving rod (for linear displacement)
 a cable that is kept stretched during operation

The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track comprises of large
number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire. Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin
embedded with the carbon powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 %
while the conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 µm.

During the sensing operation, a voltage VS is applied across the resistive element. A voltage divider
circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is measured
as shown in the figure 2.4. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider over
the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the output voltage VA.
 .

Figure 2.4 Potentiometer: electric circuit

VA = I RA (2.3)
(2.4)
But
(2.5)
Therefore
As we know that R = ρL /A where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor and A is area of
cross section
(2.6)

Applications of potentiometer

These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its commanded position.

These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks,
automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding
machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in
computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.

Strain Gauges

The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the original
length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we can say,

(2.7)

where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value of G is
considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.
 Figure 2.5 A pattern of resistive foils

Figure 2.6 Wheatstone's bridge

Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation 2.7. It
comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure 2.5. These foils are made of
Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing material plastic
(ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are secured to the workpiece
by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman 910 SL. As the workpiece undergoes change in its
shape due to external loading, the resistance of strain gauge element changes. This change in
resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone‟s resistance bridge as shown in Figure 2.6.In
the balanced bridge we can have a relation,

(2.8)

where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1 and R3 are

known constant value resistors. The measured deformation or displacement by the stain gauge is
calibrated against change in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage across
nodes A and B equal to zero.

Applications of strain gauges

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and failure
analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing, residual stress
and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection measurement,
compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press
and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

Piezoelectric sensor

Figure 2.7 Principle of working of Piezoelectric sensor

Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces such
as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension. It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal
materials such as Quartz (Figure 2.7). On application of force or pressure these materials get
stretched or compressed. During this process, the charge over the material changes and
redistributes. One face of the material becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged.
The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been
displaced. The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we can write,

q = kx = SF

where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Figure 2.8 Construction of LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of
linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity
error ± 0.25% of full range. Figure 2.8 shows the construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three coils
symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil and the other two are
secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose
each other. A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be monitored is
placed inside the insulated tube.
 Figure 2.8 Working of LVDT sensor

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in
each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced from
the central position as shown in Figure 2.8, say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then more
emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage from the coils.
If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion
with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as low pass filters and
demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.

LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute position
sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is
highly reliable. These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms,
automated measurement in machine tools.

A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation.
Readers are suggested to prepare a report on principle of working and construction of RVDT sensor.

Applications of LVDT sensors

 Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications

 To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
 To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
 For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
 To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
 To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
 To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
Tactile sensors

Figure 2.9 Schematic of a tactile sensor

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a robot with an object. They
are also used in manufacturing of „touch display‟ screens of visual display units (VDUs) of CNC
machine tools. Figure 2.9 shows the construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
based tactile sensor. It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film which transmits the vibrations.
An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer which generates vibrations due to reverse
piezoelectric effect. These vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via soft film. These
vibrations cause alternating voltage across the upper PVDF layer. When some pressure is applied on
the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets affected and the output voltage changes. This triggers a
switch or an action in robots or touch displays.

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical systemin terms of expansion or contraction of

solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors are
widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting etc.
The construction details and principle of working of some of the temperature sensors are discussed
in following sections.
Bimetallic strips

Figure 2.10 Construction and working of Bi-metallic strip

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The metals
have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips with the metal
with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure 2.10 shows a typical
arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips bend, the soft iron
comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then the electric circuit
completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired
application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship as
shown in Figure 2.11. The correlation is

(2.9)

Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (°C) and R0 is the temperature at 0°C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually made
to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C
 Figure 2.11 Behavior of RTD materials

Figure 2.12 Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

Figure 2.12 shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone
bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small
amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature changes the
resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.

RTDs are used in the form of thin films,wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals such
as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive
in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other applications are:

 Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing

 Food Processing
 Stoves and grills
 Textile production
 Plastics processing
 Petrochemical processing
 Micro electronics
 Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
 Exhaust gas temperature measurement
Thermocouple

Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces an
electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed
of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there is a
continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure 2.13 shows the schematic of
thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction
temperature and composition of two metals. It is given by,

ΔVAB = αΔT (2.5.2)

Where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant ofproportionality.

Figure 2.13 Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Generally, Chromel(90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel(95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2%

aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple. Table shown below
shows the various other materials, their combinations and application temperature ranges.
 Table: Thermocouple materials and temperature ranges

Applications of Thermocouples

 To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process

 Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum
refineries
 Testing of heating appliance safety
 Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
 Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
 Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron and
aluminum industry

Light Emitting Diode

In a forward biased diode free electrons cross the junction and enter into p-layer where they
recombine with holes. Each recombination radiates energy as electron falls from higher energy level
to a lower energy level. In ordinary diodes this energy is in the form of heat. In light emitting diode,
this energy is in the form of light.

Sequence of Operation
• When current flows across a diode
• Negative electrons move one way and positive holes move the other way
• The wholes exist at a lower energy level than the free electrons
• Therefore when a free electrons falls it losses energy
• This energy is emitted in a form of a photon, which causes light
• The color of the light is determined by the fall of the electron and hence energy level of the
photon

The symbol of LED is shown below. Ordinary diodes are made of Ge or Si. This material blocks the
passage of light. LEDs are made of different materials such as gallium, arsenic and phosphorus.
LEDs can radiate red, green, yellow, blue, orange or infrared (invisible). The LED's forward voltage
drop is more approximately 1.5V. Typical LED current is between 10 mA to 50 mA.
 (a) (b)

Fig 2.14 : (a) single LED (b) Seven segment display

When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band recombine
with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a
monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these
photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light output.

LED Construction
when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices
that convert electrical energy into light energy.
The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a normal signal diode. The
PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shaped
shell or body which protects the LED from both vibration and shock.
As LED junction does not emit that much light so the epoxy resin body is constructed in such a way
that the photons of light emitted by the junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate
base to which the diode is attached and are focused upwards through the domed top of the LED,
which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted light appears
to be brightest at the top of the LED.
However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy shell. Some
indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction that has a flat surface on top
or their body is shaped into a bar or arrow. Generally, all LED‟s are manufactured with two legs
protruding from the bottom of the body.
Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – ) terminal identified by either a
notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being shorter than the other as the anode
( + ) lead is longer than the cathode (k).

Light Emitting Diode Colours

Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or
Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to produce a distinct
wavelength of colour.
Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum and therefore
produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the semiconductor material used will
determine the overall wavelength of the photon light emissions and therefore the resulting colour of
the light emitted.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

Semiconductor Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA

Material

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-dependent devices with its
forward voltage drop VF, depending on the semiconductor compound (its light colour) and on the
forward biased LED current. Most common LED‟s require a forward operating voltage of between
approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts with a forward current rating of about 10 to 30 mA, with 12 to 20 mA
being the most common range.
Both the forward operating voltage and forward current vary depending on the semiconductor
material used but the point where conduction begins and light is produced is about 1.2V for a
standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED.
The exact voltage drop will of course depend on the manufacturer because of the different dopant
materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop across the LED at a particular current value, for
example 20mA, will also depend on the initial conduction VFpoint. As an LED is effectively a diode,
its forward current to voltage characteristics curves can be plotted for each diode colour as shown
below.
Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics

Fig: 2.15 Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics

LED Series Resistance.

The series resistor value RS is calculated by simply using Ohm´s Law, by knowing the required
forward current IF of the LED, the supply voltage VS across the combination and the expected
forward voltage drop of the LED, VF at the required current level, the current limiting resistor is
calculated as:

LED Series Resistor Circuit

Example No1
An amber coloured LED with a forward volt drop of 2 volts is to be connected to a 5.0v fixed DC
power supply. Using the circuit above calculate the value of the series resistor required to limit the
forward current to less than 10mA. Also calculate the current flowing through the diode if a 100Ω
series resistor is used instead of the calculated first.
1). series resistor required at 10mA.

2). with a 100Ω series resistor.

LED Displays
A 7-segment LED display provides a very convenient way when decoded properly of displaying
information or digital data in the form of numbers, letters or even alpha-numerical characters and as
their name suggests, they consist of seven individual LEDs (the segments), within one single display
package.
In order to produce the required numbers or characters from 0 to 9 and A to F respectively, on the
display the correct combination of LED segments need to be illuminated. A standard seven segment
LED display generally has eight input connections, one for each LED segment and one that acts as a
common terminal or connection for all the internal segments.
 The Common Cathode Display (CCD) – In the common cathode display, all the cathode
connections of the LEDs are joined together and the individual segments are illuminated by
application of a HIGH, logic “1” signal.
 The Common Anode Display (CAD) – In the common anode display, all the anode connections
of the LEDs are joined together and the individual segments are illuminated by connecting the
terminals to a LOW, logic “0” signal.

Fig 2.16 A Typical Seven Segment LED Display

Organic LED
the organic LED, OLED has many of the properties of a traditional organic LED. It is a PN junction
cross which light flows.
However, rather than using the traditional in-organic materials, OLEDs utilise organic compounds for
the PN junction. These materials include a variety of substances, but materials such as Aluminium 8-
hydroxyquinoline and diamene are often used.

OLED advantages & disadvantages

OLED technology is finding its niche in a variety of applications because it is able to provide a
number of advantages:

 Flexible: It is possible to make OLED displays flexible by using the right materials and
processes.
 Very thin: OLED displays can be made very thin, making them very attractive for
televisions and computer monitor applications.
 Colour capability: It is possible to fabricate OLED displays that can generate all colours.
 Power consumption: The power consumed by an OLED display is generally less than
that of an LCD when including the backlight required. This is only true for backgrounds that
are dark, or partially dark.
 Bright images: OLED displays can provide a higher contrast ratio than that obtainable
with an LCD.
 Wide viewing angle: With many displays, the colour becomes disported and the image
less saturated as the viewing angle increases. Colours displayed by OLEDs appear correct,
even up to viewing angles approaching 90°.
 Fast response time: As LCDs depend upon charges being held in the individual pixels,
they can have a slow response time. OLEDs are very much faster. A typical OLED can have a
response time of less than 0.01ms.
 Low cost in the future: OLED fabrication are likely to be able to utilise techniques that
will enable very low cost displays to be made, although these techniques are still in
development. Current costs are high.
OLED displays do have their disadvantages:

 Moisture sensitive: Some types of OLED can be sensitive to moisture.

 Limited life: The lifetime of some displays can be short as a result of the high sensitivity
to moisture. This has been a limiting factor in the past.
 Power consumption: Power consumption can be higher than an equivalent LCD when
white backgrounds are being viewed as the OLED needs to generate the light for this which
will consume more power. For images with a darker background power consumption is
generally less.
 Lifespan: The lifespan of the OLED displays is a major problem. Currently they are around
half that of an LCD, being around 15 000 hours.
 UV sensitivity: OLED displays can be damaged by prolonged exposure to UV light. To
avoid this a UV blocking filter is often installed over the main display, but this increases the
cost.
Types of OLEDs
Organic LED, OLED technology can be divided into two types of organic LED technologies:

 Small Molecule OLED, SM-OLED: The small molecule type of organic LED was originally
championed by Kodak, and is often the type referred to be the name OLED.
 Polymer LED, PLED: Polymer LEDs, PLEDs, may also be known as Light Emitting
Polymers, LEPs.