BET Quick Reference

1. D.C. CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

1.1 PASSIVE CIRUIT ELEMENTS
1.1.1 Resistors
Resistance of a material 𝑙
R= 𝜌
A

Resistance varies with temperature R t = R 0 (1 + α0 t)

Resistors in series R eq = R1 + R 2 + … … + R n
Resistors in parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + ……. +
R eq R1 R 2 Rn
Power dissipated in a resistor I2R
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
𝜌 Resistivity 𝛺𝑚 α0 Temp coefficient of resistivity at 0°C ℃−1
𝑙 Length of the material 𝑚 A Cross-sectional area of the material 𝑚2
R0 Resistance at 0°C 𝛺
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1.1.2 Inductors
Inductance of a coil with non-magnetic core μ0 AN2
L=
𝑙
Inductors in series Leq = L1 + L2 + … … + Ln
Inductors in parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + ……. +
Leq L1 L2 Ln
Emf induced in an inductor di dφ
eL = L ( ) = N ( )
dt dt

Energy stored in an inductor 1 2

LI
2
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
L Self-inductance 𝐻 𝑙 Length of the magnetic circuits 𝑚
A Cross-sectional area 𝑚2 i Current following through inductor 𝐴
N Number of turns in the coil μ0 Permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚
φ Flux produced 𝑊𝑏
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1.1.3 Capacitors
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor ε0 εr A
C=
d
Capacitors in series 1 1 1 1
= + + ……+
Ceq C1 C2 Cn
Capacitors in parallel Ceq = C1 + C2 + … . . + Cn
Current in a capacitor dq dvc
ic = = C( )
dt dt
Energy stored in a capacitor 1 2
CV
2
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
C Capacitance 𝐹 d Distance between the parallel plates 𝑚
𝑣c Capacitor voltage 𝑉 A Cross-sectional area of the parallel plates 𝑚2
𝑞 Charge 𝐶 εr Relative permittivity of the dielectric medium
ε0 Permittivity of free space= 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚

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1.2 DELTA-STAR/STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION
Delta to Star Star to Delta

R ab R ca ∑ RaRb
Ra = R ab =
∑ R ab Rc
R bc R ab ∑ RaRb
Rb = R bc =
∑ R ab Ra
R ca R bc ∑ RaRb
Rc = R ca =
∑ R ab Rc

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1.3 NETWORK EQUATIONS

KVL equation (matrix form) V1 R11 ⋯ R1N I1
[ ⋮ ]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ]
VN R N1 ⋯ R NN IN
[𝑽] = [𝑹][𝑰]
KCL equation (matrix form) I1 G11 ⋯ G1N 𝑉1
[⋮]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ]
IN GN1 ⋯ GNN 𝑉N
[𝑰] = [𝑮][𝑽]
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1.4 DC TRANSIENTS
1.4.1 RL Transient Circuit
Circuit equation di
V= Ri+L
dt
Current growth V
i= ( 1 − e−(𝑡⁄τ) )
R
Current decay i = I0 e−(𝑡⁄τ)
Time constant τ = L/R

Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit

I0 Initial current 𝐴 τ Time constant 𝑠
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1.4.2 RC Transient Circuit

Circuit equation dvc vc − V
C( ) +
dt R
=0

Capacitor voltage during charging vc

= V( 1 − e−(t⁄τ) )
Capacitor voltage during discharging vc = V0 e−(t⁄τ)
Time constant τ = RC
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
V0 Initial voltage 𝑉 τ Time constant 𝑠

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2. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Magneto-motive force F=N×I=φ×S
Magnetic field strength N×I
H=
𝑙
Reluctance of the magnetic path 𝑙
S=
μ0 μr 𝐴
Permeance of the magnetic path 1
𝒫=
S
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
φ Magnetic flux 𝑊𝑏 N No. of turns of the coil
H Magnetic field strength 𝐴𝑚 I Current flowing through the coil 𝐴
S Reluctance 𝐴/𝑊𝑏 𝑙 Length of the magnetic path 𝑚
μr Relative permeability
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2.1 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Faraday’s law dφ Self- dφ
e=N L=N
dt inductance d𝑖

Induced emf d𝑖 Mutual M = k √L1 L2

e=L
dt inductance
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2.2 COUPLED CIRCUITS

Equivalent inductance (series addition) Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
Equivalent inductance (series opposition) Leq = L1 + L2 − 2M
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3. SINGLE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS

3.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS
3.1.1 Representation of complex numbers
Complex operator “j” Rectangular form Trigonometric form Exponential form Polar form
z=x±jy z = r (cosθ ± j sinθ) ±jθ z = r ± θ
j = √−1 z=re
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3.1.2 Rectangular-Polar Conversion

Rectangular to polar Polar to rectangular
r = √x 2 + y 2 x = r cos θ
y y = r sin θ
θ = tan−1
x
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3.1.3 Arithmetic Operation:

Let 𝒛𝟏 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒋𝒚𝟏 = 𝒓𝟏 ∠θ𝟏 & 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒋𝒚𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 ∠θ𝟐
Addition Subtraction
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + j(y1 + y2 ) z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + j(y1 − y2 )
Multiplication Division
z1 z2 = r1 r2 ∠(θ1 + θ2 ) z1 r1
= ∠(θ1 − θ2 )
z2 r2

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3.2 SINGLE PHASE

3.2.1 Representations of Sinusoidal Signal

Graphical representation

𝑥1 (t) = X1m sin (ωt)

Mathematical representation 𝑥2 (t) = X2m sin(ωt − ∅)
𝑥3 (t) = X3m sin(ωt + θ)

Phasor representation

where 𝐗 𝟏 , 𝐗 𝟐 & 𝐗 𝟑 are the RMS values

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3.2.2 Average and RMS Values of a Periodic Signal

For a periodic signal 𝒇(𝒕) T/2
2
Favg = ∫ f(t)dt
T
0

T
1
Frms = √ ∫ f 2 (t)dt
𝑇
0

For a sinusoidal signal 𝒇(𝒕) 2𝐹𝑚

Favg =
𝜋
𝐹𝑚
Frms =
√2
Form factor for a sinusoidal signal RMS Value
FF = = 1.11
Average Value
Peak factor for a sinusoidal signal Maximum Value
PF = = √2
RMS Value
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
T Time period of the signal 𝒇(𝒕) 𝑠 𝐹𝑚 Maximum amplitude of the sinusoidal signal
𝒇(𝒕)
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3.2.3 AC response through R, L and C
Purely Resistive Circuit Purely Inductive Circuit Purely Capacitive Circuit

Circuit diagram

Mathematical v(t) = Vm sin(ωt) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡)

representation i(t) = Im sin (ωt) 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 90°) 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 90°)
Circuit ̅
V V∠0° ̅
V V∠0° ̅
V V∠0°
Z= = =𝑅 = = jX L = = −jXC
I̅ I∠0°
impedance ̅I I∠ − 90° ̅I I∠90°

Average power Vm Im V2 Pavg = 0 Pavg = 0

Pavg = = VI = = I2R
2 R
Phasor
representation

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3.2.4 AC response through RL & RC circuit

Circuit
diagram

Mathematical 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡)

representation 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ∅) 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
Circuit 𝑉̅ I(̅ R + 𝑗XL ) 𝑉̅ I(̅ R − 𝑗XC )
= = R + 𝑗XL = Z∠∅ = = R − 𝑗XC = Z∠ − ∅
impedance 𝐼̅ I̅ 𝐼̅ I̅

Average Pavg = VI cos ∅ Pavg = VI cos ∅

power

Phasor
representation

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3.2.5 RLC Circuit

Circuit diagram

Z = R + j(XL ~Xc )
𝑖𝑓 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ⟹ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
Circuit impedance
𝑖𝑓 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 ⟹ 𝑅𝐿 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑖𝑓 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 ⟹ 𝑅𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
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3.2.6 Impedance and Admittance

Impedance Z = R ± jX

Total impedance Z𝑒𝑞 = Z1 + Z2 𝑍1 𝑍2

Admittance Y = 1⁄Z = G ∓ jB

𝑍1
1 1
Total admittance Y𝑒𝑞 = + = Y1 + Y2
Z1 Z2
𝑍2

Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit

G Conductance 𝑆 B Susceptance 𝑆
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3.2.7 Network Equations

KVL equation (matrix form) 𝐕𝟏 𝐙𝟏𝟏 ⋯ 𝐙𝟏𝐍 𝐈𝟏
[ ⋮ ]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ]
𝐕𝐍 𝐙𝐍𝟏 ⋯ 𝐙𝐍𝐍 𝐈𝐍
[𝑽] = [𝒁][𝑰]
KCL equation (matrix form) 𝐈𝟏 𝐘𝟏𝟏 ⋯ 𝐘𝟏𝐍 𝑽𝟏
[⋮]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ]
𝐈𝐍 𝐘𝐍𝟏 ⋯ 𝐘𝐍𝐍 𝑽𝐍
[𝑰] = [𝒀][𝑽]
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3.2.8 Power in AC Circuits

Instantaneous power in an AC system p(t) = v(t) × i(t) = Vm Im sin(ωt) sin(ωt ± ∅)
Active power P = VI cos ∅ = I 2 Z cos ∅ = I 2 R
Reactive power Q = VI sin ∅ = I 2 Z sin ∅ = I 2 X
Complex power S = P ± jQ

Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit

P Active power 𝑊 S Apparent power 𝑉𝐴
Q Reactive power 𝑉𝐴𝑅 cos∅ Power factor
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 RL Load:

𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑿𝑳

𝑸 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑿
𝒁 𝑿𝑳

∅ ∅
∅

𝑹 𝑰 𝑽𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
Impedance Diagram Phasor Diagram Power Diagram

RC Load:

𝑰 𝑽𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑹 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
∅ ∅ ∅

𝑽𝑪 = 𝑰𝑿𝑪

𝑸 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑿
𝒁 𝑿𝑪

Impedance Diagram Phasor Diagram Power Diagram

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3.2.9 Series Resonance

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
Circuit diagram At resonance
⇒𝑍=𝑅

Resonant frequency 1
ω0 =
√LC
Bandwidth (BW) BW = ω2 − ω1 = R/L
Quality factor for
series RLC circuit Resonant frequency 1 ω0 L 1 L
Q= = = = √
Bandwidth ω0 CR R R C
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
ω1 Lower Half-power Frequency 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 ω0 Resonant Frequency 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
ω2 Upper Half-power Frequency 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
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3.2.10 Parallel Resonance

Equivalent Admittance Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + ⋯ + Yn = G ± jB
At resonance Img(Yeq ) = B = 0
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4. THREE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS
4.1 THREE-PHASE SOURCE VOLTAGE REPRESENTATION

Circuit diagram

Instantaneous phase voltages vRN = Vm Sin(ωt)

vYN = Vm Sin(ωt − 120°)
vBN = Vm Sin(ωt − 240°)
Polar representation of phase voltages ̅RN = Vph ∠0°
V
̅YN = Vph ∠−120°
V
̅BN = Vph ∠ − 240°
V
Vm
where, Vph =
√2

Graphical representation

Polar representation of line voltages ̅RY = V

V ̅RN − V
̅YN = √3 × Vph ∠30°

̅YB = V
V ̅YN − V
̅BN = √3 × Vph ∠−90°

̅BR = V
V ̅BN − V
̅RN = √3 × Vph ∠−210°
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 4.1.1 THREE PHASE LOADS
Star Connected Loads Delta Connected Loads

For Balanced Loads For Balanced Loads

VL = √3 × VPh VL = VPh
IL = IPh IL = √3 × IPh
P = √3 × VL × IL × cos ∅ P = √3 × VL × IL × cos ∅

For Unbalanced Loads For Unbalanced Loads

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑃ℎ VL = VPh
𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑅𝑂 − 𝑉𝑌𝑂 IR = IRY − IBR
𝑉𝑌𝐵 = 𝑉𝑌𝑂 − 𝑉𝐵𝑂 IY = IYB − IRY
𝑉𝐵𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝑂 − 𝑉𝑅𝑂 IB = IBR − IYB
P = VRO IR Cos( VRO & IR ) + VYO IY Cos( VYO & IY ) + P = VRY IRY Cos( VRY & IRY ) + VYB IYB Cos( VYB & IYB ) +
VBO IB Cos( VBO & IB ) VBR IBR Cos( VBR & IBR )
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4.1.2 POWER MEASUREMENT FOR 3-PHASE BALANCED LOADS USING 2-WATTMETER METHOD

Wattmeter readings

W1 = VRY IR Cos( VRY & IR )

Circuit diagram W1 = VL IL Cos(30° + ∅)

W2 = VBY IB Cos( VBY & IB )

W2 = VL IL Cos(30° − ∅)

Total power consumed P = W1 + W2 = √3 × VL IL Cos∅

Power factor of balanced star- W2 − W1
Cos∅ = Cos {tan−1 [√3 × ]}
connected loads W2 + W1
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5. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS:
5.1 TRANSFORMERS:

Circuit diagram

Primary induced emf 𝐸1 = 4.44 𝑁1 𝑓𝜑𝑚

Secondary induced emf 𝐸2 = 4.44 𝑁2 𝑓𝜑𝑚
Turns ratio V1 E1 I2 N1
≅ = =
V2 E2 I1 N2
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
𝑓 Supply frequency 𝐻𝑧 N1 Number of turns on primary
𝜑𝑚 Magnetic flux 𝑊𝑏 N2 Number of turns on secondary
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5.2 D.C. MOTORS

Circuit diagram of DC shunt motor

Voltage equation for DC shunt motor V = E b + Ia R a

Circuit diagram of a DC series motor

Voltage equation for DC series motor V = Eb + I𝑎 (R a + R se )

Circuit diagram of a DC compound

motor

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 Circuit diagram of a DC separately
excited motor

Back emf induced in armature PZ

Eb = φN
60𝑎
Torque developed in DC motor PZ
T= φI
2π𝑎 𝑎
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
𝑃 Number of poles Ra Armature resistance 𝛺
φ Flux per pole 𝑊𝑏 𝑎 number of parallel paths in armature
I𝑎 Armature Current 𝐴 2, for wave winding
𝑎={
P, for lap winding
N Armature speed 𝑅𝑃𝑀 Z Total number of armature conductors
R se Series Resistance of the field winding 𝛺
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5.3 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Speed of rotating magnetic field 120f
Ns =
P
Percentage of operating slip Ns − N
s= × 100
Ns

Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit

Ns Synchronous speed 𝑅𝑃𝑀 f Supply frequency 𝐻𝑧
P Number of poles
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