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Transistor

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54 views22 pages

Transistor

Uploaded by

R Tharunish
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CHAPTER 1

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of two N-regions separated by a P-region or


two P-regions separated by an N-region as shown in Figure. 1.1. The former is called an
N-P-N transistor and the latter P-N-P transistor. The middle region is designated as the
base of the transistor and the regions at the ends as the emitter and collector.

Figure 1.1: Schematic and Symbols of (a) NPN Transistor (b) PNP Transistor

1
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2 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

A BJT consists of two P-N junctions (emitter-base junction and collector-base junction)
and three terminals (emitter, base, and collector). The name transistor is derived from the
terms transfer of resistor. A change in current at the emitter causes almost the same change
in current at the collector. The same current is transferred from the low-resistance region
to the high-resistance region.

1.1.1 THE DIFFERENT CURRENT COMPONENTS IN A PNP TRANSISTOR

Figure 1.2: Current Components in a PNP Transistor

Figure 1.2 shows the current components in a bipolar junction transistor (PNP) in the
normal mode of operation. (i.e., with the emitter-base junction forward biased and the
collector-base junction reverse biased)

IEp -Emitter current due to injection of holes from emitter to base

IEn -Emitter current due to injection of electrons from base to emitter

IBr -Base current due to recombination in the base

ICBO -Reverse leakage current of the collector-base junction with emitter open

ICp -Collector current due to the holes coming through the base from the emitter

1.1.2 THE CONSTITUENTS OF IE , IC and IB IN A PNP TRANSISTOR

IE = IEp + IEn

IC = −(ICp − ICBO )

IB = IBr + IEn + ICBO


BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 3

1.1.3 DIFFERENT REGION OF OPERATIONS OF A TRANSISTOR

Region of operation Emitter Base junction Collector Base junction


Active Region (forward
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
region)
Saturation Region Forward bias and
Forward bias
(Forward saturation) VEB >VCB
Cut off region Reverse bias Reverse bias
Inverse Active Reverse bias Forward bias
Forward bias and
Inverse saturation Forward bias
VCB >VEB

1.1.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Figure 1.3: NPN Transistor Biased in the Active Region

Figure 1.3 shows an NPN transistor biased in the active region, the base-emitter (BE)
junction is forward biased whereas the collector-base (CB) junction is reverse biased. The
width of the depletion region of the BE junction is small as compared to that of the CB
junction. The forward bias at the BE junction reduces the barrier potential and causes the
electrons to flow from the emitter to the base. As the base is thin and lightly doped, it
consists of very few holes, so some of the electrons from the emitter recombine with the
holes present in the base region and flow out of the base terminal. This constitutes the base
current. The remaining electrons which are large in number cross the base region and the
collector junction and reach the collector terminal, constituting the collector current. Thus
KCL,
IE = IB + IC (1.1)

The base current is very small compared to the emitter and collector current. Therefore,

IE ≈ IC (1.2)

Here, the majority of charge carriers are electrons. The operation of a PNP transistor is the
same as that of an NPN transistor, the difference is that the majority of charge carriers are
holes instead of electrons.
4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1.1.5 DOPING AND DIMENSIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF COLLECTOR RE-


GION OF A TRANSISTOR
For a transistor, α = − IICE and β = IIB
C
should be as high as possible. For this, the transport
factor (αT ) and injection efficiency (γ) must be high.
IEp
γ= (1.3)
IEp + IEn

ICp
αT = (1.4)
ICp + IBr
The transport factor can be maximized by minimizing base current due to recombina-
tion (IBr ). For this base width and base doping must be minimum. Injection efficiency can
be maximized by minimizing the emitter current due to the injection of electrons from the
base to the emitter (IEn ) or by keeping the emitter-to-base doping ratio as high as possible.

Figure 1.4: A Practical Doping Profile of an NPN Transistor

In short, the emitter must be heavily doped, the base must be lightly doped and the base
width must be minimum. If the collector is having higher doping than the base region,
the collector base depletion region extends into the base side, reducing the effective base
width. If VCB is increased, the base region gets completely depleted and the effective base
width becomes zero. This is called Punch Through. Under this condition, the majority of
carriers from the emitter will be directly swept to the collector region and the transistor ac-
tion is lost, Punch-through is a breakdown effect and must be avoided in circuits. In order
to avoid the punch-through effect, the collector region should have lighter doping than the
base. Lighter doping of the collector region increases the power dissipation in the collector
region. Therefore a compromise between these conflicting requirements has to be made.
A practical solution to this is to have a doping profile shown in Figure 1.4.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 5

The collector is having lighter doping near the base end and heavy doping towards the
collector end, thus avoiding early punch-through and reducing overall resistance. Collector
and emitter regions have comparable currents. But the collector has higher resistance than
the emitter (due to lighter doping). Therefore, the area of the collector region must be the
maximum possible. Usually, the collector of a transistor is connected to its body so that
heat gets conducted outward.

1.1.6 BASE WIDTH AND DOPING


The width of the base (WB ) should be less than the diffusion length of minority carriers
in the base (for a PNP transistor WB should be less than Lp , where Lp is the diffusion
length of the hole. Diffusion length is defined as the average distance a carrier diffuses
before it recombines with an opposite type of carrier), otherwise the carrier injected from
the emitter recombines with the opposite type of carrier in the base and does not reach the
collector. This causes poor transport factors, α and β.
As base doping increases, injection efficiency decreases and recombination in the base
increases, α and β reduces. Therefore base region must be lightly doped and must have
the least width.

1.1.7 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF A PNP TRANSISTOR IN COMMON BASE


CONFIGURATION

Figure 1.5: A PNP Transistor in Common Base Configuration

Input characteristics of transistors in common base configurations are the forward char-
acteristics of the emitter-base junction with VCB (reverse bias on the collector-base junc-
tion) constant as shown in Figure 1.6. As VCB increases the collector base depletion layer
width increases and the effective base width reduces. This reduces the transit time through
the base region. Therefore holes emitted from the base are collected at a faster rate, increas-
ing IC and IB . Therefore for a given VEB as VCB increases the emitter current increases.
The curves shift towards the left as VCB increases.

1.1.8 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF A PNP TRANSISTOR IN COMMON


BASE CONFIGURATION

Output characteristics of an PNP transistor in a common base configuration are shown in


Figure 1.7. When IE = 0, IC = ICBO , the transistor is in the cut-off region. When
IE > 0, a negative value of VCB indicates a forward bias on the collector-base junction.
6 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Figure 1.6: Input Characteristics of a PNP Transistor in Common Base Configuration

Therefore collector current is equal to the difference in current due to the injection of holes
from emitter to base and current due to the injection of holes from collector to base. There-
fore IC reduces as the forward bias on the collector-base junction increases and becomes
zero for a forward bias equal to the forward bias on the emitter-base junction.

Figure 1.7: Output Characteristics of a PNP Transistor in Common Base Configuration

Therefore, for different values of IC (VEB ) the curves meet on the voltage axis for
different values of VCB (for IC = 0, VCB ∼ = VEB ). If VCB is further increased, the
direction of IC changes and increases in the opposite direction. When the reverse bias on
the collector-base junction increases IC increases slightly due to the early effect.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 7

1.1.9 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN TRANSISTOR IN COMMON EMIT-


TER (CE) CONFIGURATION

Figure 1.8: An NPN Transistor in Common Emitter Configuration

Figure 1.9: Input Characteristics of an NPN Transistor in CE Configuration

Input characteristics of the transistor in Common Emitter (CE) configuration (Figure


1.8) are the forward characteristics of the base-emitter diode with VCE constant as shown
in Figure 1.9. For a given VBE , as VCE increases the reverse bias on the collector base
junction (VCB ) increases ( VCE = VCB + VBE ) and base width reduces due to early effect.
Thus the base current reduces. Therefore the curves shift towards the right as VCE is
increased.
8 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1.1.10 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN TRANSISTOR IN COMMON


EMITTER CONFIGURATION
Output characteristics of an NPN transistor in a common emitter configuration are shown
in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10: Output Characteristics of an NPN Transistor in CE Configuration

When IB = 0, IC remains at ICEO and transistor is in the cut off region.


For IB > 0, IC = 0 for VCE = 0. This is because when VCE = 0, -VBE = VCB . Both
junctions are equally forward-biased. When VCE is increased the forward bias on the
collector-base junction decreases and the collector current increases.
For IB > 0, VCE > VBE , and the transistor is in the saturation region. When
VCE becomes equal to VBE , the collector-base junction gets reverse biased and the
transistor enters the active region. If VCE is further increased, IC increases slightly
due to base width modulation.
If the curves for different values of IB are extended, they meet on the same point on
the x axis and the voltage corresponding to this point is called early voltage.

1.1.11 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMMON COLLECTOR CON-


FIGURATION
Common collector configuration has very high input impedance and very low output impedance.
It has a high current gain. But its voltage gain is very low (less than unity). It is used for
impedance matching and as a current booster.
α (ALPHA) AND β (BETA) OF A TRANSISTOR & THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEM 9

1.1.12 REASON FOR USING COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION IN AM-


PLIFIER CIRCUITS
An ideal amplifier should have very high input impedance and very low output impedance.
A common emitter amplifier has an input impedance much greater than the common base
configuration and an output impedance much less than the common base configuration.
It also gives high current gain and voltage gain. Common collector configuration has
low voltage gain (less than unity). These factors make a common emitter amplifier more
popular as a general-purpose amplifier.

1.2 α (ALPHA) AND β (BETA) OF A TRANSISTOR & THE RELATIONSHIP


BETWEEN THEM

α of a transistor is defined as the forward short circuit current gain in common base con-
figuration

IC
α=− , VCB = 0 (1.5)
IE

β of a transistor is defined as the base-to-collector current amplification factor or the


common emitter current gain.

IC
β= , VCE Constant (1.6)
IB

By Kirchhoff’s current law,

IE + IC + IB = 0 or IB = −(IC + IE ) (1.7)

therefore,

IC
β= (1.8)
−IE − IC

Dividing the numerator and denominator by -IE

−IC
IE
β= (1.9)
1 + IICE

α
β= (1.10)
1−α
10 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1.2.1 COMPARISON OF COMMON EMITTER, COMMON BASE AND COM-


MON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATIONS

Parameters CE CB CC
Input impedance Low (1KΩ) Very low (20Ω) High
Output impedance Medium (10KΩ) High (1MΩ) Low
Voltage High High Low
Current gain High(100) Low(0.98) High
Applications General purpose Constant current impedance
amplifier source, High matching, cur-
frequency ampli- rent amplifier or
fier, impedance buffer
matching

1.3 BIASING OF A TRANSISTOR

Biasing is the technique of applying dc voltages to a transistor so as to ensure proper cur-


rents through the device and to have proper voltages at different parts of the transistor.
These currents and voltages provide some desired performance. The dc currents and volt-
ages fix a point on the characteristics. This point is called the Quiescent Point or Operating
Point or Q Point. There are different techniques to bias a transistor such as fixed bias,
self-bias, voltage divider bias, etc.

1.4 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A BIASING CIRCUIT

Biasing circuit has to establish the operating point on the characteristics.


It stabilizes the collector current against temperature variations avoiding thermal run-
away.
It makes the operating point independent of transistor parameters, which may change
due to aging or replacement of the transistor.

1.5 NEED OF A BIASING CIRCUIT

Biasing is required to fix the operating point on the dc load line.


To stabilize collector current against temperature variations.
To make the operating point independent of transistor parameters.

1.6 FIXED BIASING AND LOAD LINE

A circuit of fixed bias or base bias is shown in Figure 1.11. A dc voltage source VBB
forward biases the emitter-base junction through a current limiting resistor RB . Ohm’s
FIXED BIASING AND LOAD LINE 11

Figure 1.11: A Fixed Bias Circuit

law gives
VBB − VBE
IB = (1.11)
RB
where VBE = 0.7V for Si and 0.3 for Ge. In the collector circuit, dc voltage source VCC
reverse biases the collector through RC . Applying KVL leads to,
VCE = VCC − IC RC (1.12)
In a given circuit VCC and RC are constants, VCE and IC are variables. Equation (7.2) can
be rearranged to get
−VCE VCC
IC = + (1.13)
RC RC
This is a linear equation similar to y = mx + c. Figure 1.12 shows the graph of equation
(1.13) superimposed on the output characteristics. The vertical intercept is VRCCC
horizontal
−1
intercept is VCC and the slope is RC . The straight line represented by the equation (1.13)
is called the dc load line. This line is the locus of quiescent operating points. Quiescent
operating point shows the location on the load line for a given IB with no signals applied
to the transistor.
The point where the load line intersects the IB = 0 curve is known as cut off. At this
point collector current is ICEO (collector-emitter leakage current). At cut-off, the emitter-
base junction gets reverse-biased, and normal transistor action is lost. The collector-emitter
voltage at cut off is VCE(cutof f ) = VCC .

The intersection of the load line and IB = IBsat curve is called saturation. The collector
current is maximum at this point. The collector base junction gets forward-biased at this
point and normal transistor action is lost. The collector current at saturation is
VCC
IC(sat) = (1.14)
RC
and the base current that just produces saturation is
IC(sat)
IB(sat) = (1.15)
β
12 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Figure 1.12: Load Line Drawn on the Output Characteristics

The collector-emitter voltage at saturation is

VCE = VCE(sat) (1.16)

If the base current increases above IBsat , the collector current does not increase. So in
this region, the relation IC = βIB is not valid. All operating points between cut-off and
saturation are in the active region of the transistor. In the active region, the emitter-base
junction is forward-biased and the collector-base junction is reverse-biased. In fixed bias,
RB and VBB decide the base current. The intersection of the curve for this base current
with the load line gives the operating point. This bias is sensitive to temperature variations
and may lead to thermal runaway.

1.7 VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIASING

Voltage divider bias is the most widely used biasing technique. In this biasing the resis-
tors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider network, that is why it is known as voltage divider
biasing. The operating point of the transistor can be made independent of β by a suitable
selection of R1 and R2 .

First, consider the input section, assuming that the base current (IB ) is very small com-
pared to the currents in R1 and R2 . That is

I1 , I2 ≫ IB (1.17)
VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIASING 13

Figure 1.13: Voltage divider biasing

We can apply the voltage divider theorem to find the voltage across R2 (same as base
voltage VB ).
R2
VB = V2 = VCC (1.18)
R1 + R2

The voltage across emitter resistor RE =Voltage across R2 -Base emitter voltage.

VE = V2 − VBE (1.19)

The emitter current is


VE V2 − VBE
IE = = (1.20)
RE RE

The voltage at the collector VC =The supply voltage VCC -Voltage drop across RC .

VC = VCC − IC RC (1.21)

The collector-to-emitter voltage is then given as

VCE = VC − VE = VCC − IC RC − IE RE (1.22)

VCE ≈ VCC − IC (RC + RE ) (1.23)

IE =IB +IC . Since IB is very small, IE and IC are approximately equal. Note that in
this voltage divider analysis, β is not present in any of the equations. This means that the
operating point doesn’t depend on the value of β of the transistor. Because of this reason,
voltage divider bias is widely used.
14 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1.8 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSISTOR BIASING

Type Advantages Disadvantages Applications


Simplicity, single Sensitive to
Base Bias (Fixed Digital and
power supply, one temperature and β
bias) switching circuits
resistor variations
Stable Q point,
Voltage divider insensitive to Needs four General purpose
(Self-bias) temperature and β resistors amplifier
variations

1.9 WORKING OF TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER

Figure 1.14: An NPN Transistor in Common Emitter Configuration as an Amplifier

The basic circuit of a transistor as an amplifier in a common emitter configuration is


shown in Figure 1.14. A transistor must be operating in the middle of the active region
(without any signals applied) of its characteristics to function properly as an amplifier. The
base supply voltage (VBB ) forward bias the base-emitter junction and the collector supply
voltage (VCC ) reverse bias the collector-base junction, bringing the transistor to the active
region. With RC and RB , the transistor is brought to operate at the middle of the active
region of the characteristics. The output is taken across the collector of the transistor and
is given by
vo = VCC − IC RC (1.24)
where IC is the collector current and RC is the collector resistance.
Let is be the ac current resulting from the application of a signal voltage vs , applied to
the input as shown in Figure 1.14. This small current is , gets added to the dc base current
RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER 15

(IB ). This causes an ac component of current (ic ) to be added to the dc collector current
(IC ).
As the input vs slightly increases, IB increases by a small value, and IC increases by a
large value (∆IC =β∆IB ). Therefore, the output decreases by a large value. Similarly, if
vi decreases by a small value, output increases by a large value. While the input voltage
increases, the output voltage decreases, and the input voltage decreases, the output voltage
increases as shown in Figure 1.15, which implies that there is a phase shift of 180◦ between
the input and output. Hence the transistor in common emitter configuration amplifies the
input voltage with a phase shift of 180◦ .

Figure 1.15: Input Output Waveforms of a Transistor Amplifier

1.10 RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

RC Coupled Amplifier makes use of a transistor in a common emitter configuration as


shown in Figure 1.16. Therefore, this amplifier has a high current gain and voltage gain.
The dc supply voltage VCC is used for biasing the transistor. It also provides the energy
needed for amplification. The CE amplifier is biased in such a way that the operating
point is at the middle of the load line. For this, RC and RE are taken such that selecting
VRC =40%VCC , VRE =10%VCC and VCE =50%VCC . VCC , RC and RE together fix the
value of IC . R1 and R2 are selected in such a way that a current IB = IC /β flows through
the base. RE stabilizes the operating point against temperature variations. CE is used to
bypass the ac component of the emitter current to ground, thus improving the gain of the
amplifier. CC1 is to block any dc components in the input signal which may change the
operating point. CC2 is to prevent the dc component at the output from entering the next
stage, or the load. CC1 and CC2 are called coupling capacitors because CC1 couples the
signal to the input of the amplifier and CC2 couples the output signal to the load or next
stage. The output of one stage is coupled to the next stage through RC and CC . Therefore
this amplifier is known as RC Coupled Amplifier. The input-output waveforms of the
RC-coupled amplifier are shown in Figure 1.17.
16 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Figure 1.16: RC Coupled Amplifier

Figure 1.17: Waveform of RC Coupled Amplifier


RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER 17

1.10.1 FUNCTION OF RE IN RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER


RE stabilizes the operating point against temperature variations. If temperature increases,
ICBO increases, IC increases, IE increases and the voltage drop across RE (VE ) increases.
This reduces VBE (VBE = VB − VE where VB is the voltage at the base which is fixed
through biasing) and IB , which reduces IC (IC = βIB ).

1.10.2 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER


Figure 1.18 shows the frequency response of the RC coupled amplifier where the gain in
dB is plotted as a function of signal frequency in kHz. The gain remains constant over
a wide range of frequencies called mid-frequency and it falls towards lower and higher
frequencies.

Figure 1.18: Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Cut off frequency of an amplifier is defined as the frequency at which its power gain
reduces to half of its maximum value. At this frequency, the voltage gain will reduce
to a value √12 or 0.707 times its maximum gain. A reduction in a power gain of half is
equivalent to −3 in decibels. Therefore the cut-off frequencies are obtained by taking
the points on the frequency response curve, 3dB below the maximum gain.

The lower frequency corresponding to −3dB point is called lower cut off frequency
(fL ) and the upper frequency corresponding to −3dB point is called upper cut off-
frequency (fH ).

The difference between the upper cut-off frequency and lower cut-off frequency is the
bandwidth of the amplifier. Bandwidth = fH − fL

As frequency decreases the reactance of CC and CE increase. Therefore attenuation


(loss) of signals across the coupling capacitors increases. CE becomes less effective
in bypassing signals to the ground at low frequencies. These factors reduce the gain
at low frequencies.
18 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

At high frequencies, β of the transistor decreases with an increase in frequency. The


interelectrode capacitance becomes dominant at high frequencies. The capacitive re-
actance is low at high frequency which causes feedback from output to input through
interelectrode capacitors. Due to these factors, the gain of the amplifier decreases at
high frequencies.
Gain of a voltage amplifier is defined as the ratio of output signal voltage to input
signal voltage. Gain is usually represented in decibels.
Power gain is said to be 1Bel if log10 PPoi = 1. Therefore power gain in deciBel (dB)
equals log10 PP0i .

Voltage gain (Av ) in dB is defined as AV = 20log10 VV0i where V0 , is the output


voltage and Vi is the input voltage.
The gain of an amplifier may vary with frequency. The frequency response of an
amplifier is a plot of its gain vs. signal frequency. The frequency response shows the
variation of gain of the amplifier with signal frequency.
The product of gain and bandwidth is a constant for a device and is called the gain
bandwidth product.

1.11 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

Solid-state switches are one of the main applications of transistors. The areas of operation
of a Transistor Switch are the Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region. This means then
that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage divider circuitry required
for amplification and use the transistor as a switch by driving it back and forth between
its Fully-OFF (cut-off) and Fully-ON (saturation) regions as shown in Figure 1.19. The
cut-off region and saturation region of a transistor are defined as:
Cut-off Region: Here, the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base cur-
rent (IB ), zero output collector current (IC ), and maximum collector voltage (VCE ) which
results in a large depletion region and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the
transistor is switched Fully OFF. The transistor in cut-off is shown in Figure 1.20.

Cut-off Characteristics:

The input and Base are grounded (0 V)


Base-Emitter voltage V < 0.7 V
Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
Transistor is Fully OFF (Cut-off region)
No Collector current flows (IC =0)
VOU T =VCE =VCC
Transistor operates as an Open Switch
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH 19

Figure 1.19: Characteristics of Transistor as a Switch

Figure 1.20: Transistor in Cut-off

Saturation Region: The transistor is biased such that the base current IB is much greater
than IC /β. So that the transistor operates in the saturation region when it is ON. The
transistor in saturation is shown in Figure 1.21.
Saturation Characteristics:

IB much greater than IC /β

Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7 V

Base-Emitter junction is forward biased

Base-Collector junction is forward biased


20 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Figure 1.21: Transistor in Saturation

Transistor is Fully ON (saturation region)

Max Collector current flows (IC = VCC /RC )

VCE =0 (ideal saturation)

VOU T =VCE =0

Transistor operates as a Closed Switch

1.12 PHOTOTRANSISTOR

A phototransistor is a device that converts light energy into electric energy. Phototransis-
tors are similar to photoresistors but produce both current and voltage, while photoresistors
only produce current. This is because a phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor
and focuses the energy that is passed through it. Photons (light particles) activate photo-
transistors and are used in all electronic devices that depend on light in some way. The
structure of a phototransistor is shown in Figure 1.22. The schematic symbol of a photo-
transistor is shown in Figure 1.23.
In a phototransistor, the base region is kept open and the collector-base junction is il-
luminated. ICBO is the reverse saturation current of the collector-base junction. ICBO
increases with increased illumination as in a photodiode. The collector current of a tran-
sistor is given by
IC = βIB + (1 + β)ICBO (1.25)
In a phototransistor,
IB = 0 (1.26)

IC = (1 + β)ICBO (1.27)
i.e., ICBO is multiplied by a factor (1 + β) times the current in a photodiode with
same illumination. Thus, the sensitivity of a phototransistor is much higher than that of a
photodiode. The V-I characteristics of a phototransistor are shown in Figure 1.24.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR 21

Figure 1.22: Structure of a Phototransistor.

Figure 1.23: Symbol of a Photo Transistor

1.12.1 DRAWBACKS
Slower than a photodiode (higher switching delay)
It does not have a particularly good high-frequency response

1.12.2 APPLICATIONS

As a photodetector
For isolation
As optocoupler
22 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Figure 1.24: V-I Characteristics of a Photo Transistor

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