MODULE 2:

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT) AND BIASING: BJT operation – Different BJT configurations
- BJT characteristics and parameters – Common Emitter characteristics - DC load line and Bias point –
Base bias – Collector to base bias – Voltage divider bias – Comparison of bias circuits – Bias circuit Design
– BJT amplification and Switching - Thermal stability of bias circuits.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

2.1 Introduction:
 The transistor was invented in 1947 by John Bardeen, W H Brattain and William Shockley
 The invention of the transistor was the beginning of a technological revolution.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device with terminals
Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). It is also called as bipolar device.
 Used in linear amplification and switching applications.
 The illustration below shows the topics covered in this module.

•Types •Common Base

•Characteristics •Common Emitter
•Common Collector
Constructio
n& Configuratio
ns
Operation
Bipolar
Junction
Transistor
(BJT)
Applications •Fixed Bias
Biasing •Collector-to-Base
•Amplifier Circuits Methods
•Switching Circuits Bias
•Voltage Divider Bias
•Bias Circuit Design
•Thermal Stability

2.2 Construction:
 BJT is basically a semiconductor crystal containing three separate regions and two junctions.
 The middle region is called Base and the outer regions are called Emitter and Collector.
 The emitter region (E) is heavily doped, the base (B) lightly doped, and the collector (C) moderately
doped.
Doping concentration: Base < Collector < Emitter
 The width of the center layer (Base, B) is smaller than the outer layers (Emitter, E and Collector,
C). The width of the emitter layer is higher than the base layer and collector layer is slightly higher
than the emitter layer.
Width: Base < Emitter < Collector
 The collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region to dissipate more heat.
 The function of the emitter is to emit or inject electrons (holes in case of a PNP transistor) into
the base. The base passes most of these electrons (holes in case of PNP) onto the collector. The
collector has the job of collecting or gathering these electrons (holes for PNP) from the base.
 A transistor has two PN junctions: The PN junction joining the base layer and the emitter layer is
called the Base-Emitter junction (JBE) and that of the base layer and the collector layer is called
the Base-Collector junction (JBC) as in figure 2.1.

Fig.2.1 Structure of BJT

 Two types of BJT based on construction
o NPN type: (P-region sandwiched between two N regions)
o PNP type: (N-region sandwiched between two P regions)

(a) NPN type (b) PNP type

Fig.2.2 Types of BJTs

 BJT symbols are shown in Figure 2.3.

 BJT symbol having an arrowhead in the emitter terminal, indicates the direction of conventional
Emitter current (IE) flow in a BJT.
 (a)NPN type (b) PNP type
Fig. 2.3: Circuit Symbols of BJT

BJT Operation:

Like PN junction diode, as soon as creating P and N regions diffusion process will occur. Free
electrons from the N region diffuse across the junction and recombine with holes in the P region. At
equilibrium, it will result in two depletion layers. The barrier potential of each layer is 0.7V for Si
transistor at 27˚C (0.3V for Ge transistor at 27˚C).
For proper operation of transistor, two PN junction of transistor must be properly biased with
DC supply voltage. The operation of NPN transistor is described here (The operation of PNP is same
as NPN except that roles of electrons and holes; biasing polarities and current directions are
reversed)
Consider an NPN transistor biased for active region, ie, the base-emitter junction is forward
biased by VEE, and the base-collector junction is reverse biased by VCC as shown in figure
2.4(C).(Refer section 2.3.1 for modes of operation).
Base-Emitter Junction:
 Since the emitter junction is forward-biased, like PN junction diode, width of depletion region
(Emitter-Base junction) has been reduced. It will result in heavy flow of majority carriers, after
cut-in voltage, from N to P-region as shown in figure 2.4(a). The resulting current consists of
electrons travelling from the emitter to the base, and holes passing from the base to emitter.
 The total current due to these charge-carrier movements constitutes the emitter current, IE.
 Since the conventional current direction is opposite to the direction of electron flow, the emitter
current IE flows out of the emitter terminal as shown in figure 2.4a.
 Once the electrons are injected by the emitter into the base, they become minority carriers in the
base region.

Fig.2.4.a) Forward biased emitter junction 2.4.b) Reverse biased collector junction
 2.4.c) Majority and minority current flow in a transistor biased for active region
 These carriers will choose two directions to flow. One is through base terminal – called Base
current, IB (µA). Since base region is very thin and lightly doped, conductivity is very low. Second
is through base-collector junction.

Base -Collector Junction:

 Since the base-collector junction is reverse biased, it allows large number of carriers to drift into
collector region due to VCC (as shown in figure 2.4b) resulting in Collector current, IC.
 Additionally, minority carriers have been injected into base region from collector region results
in minority-current component, called Leakage current, ICO (IC current with emitter Open), also
denoted as a reverse saturation current, IS like reverse biased diode. The collector current is
comprised of these two components.
IC = IC (Majority) + ICO (Minority)
 The conventional direction of collector current IC and base current IB are into the collector
terminal and into the base terminal respectively, as shown in Figure 2.4 c.
 The total current flowing into the transistor must be equal to the total current flowing out
of it. Hence, the emitter current is equal to the sum of the base current and collector currents.
𝐈𝐄 = 𝐈𝐁 + 𝐈𝐂
 Since both holes and electrons participate in the injection process, and contribute current
through the transistor, it is known as Bipolar Junction Transistor
 Also, the arrowhead in the BJT symbol indicates the direction of emitter current.

Early Effect (or) Base-Width Modulation:

As the collector voltage VCC is made to increase the reverse bias across the collector-base
junction, the space charge or depletion region width between the collector and base tends to
increase, with the result that the effective width of the base decreases. This dependency of base-
width on collector-to-emitter voltage is known as the Early effect.
This decrease in effective base-width has following consequences:
 As effective base width decreases, there is less chance for recombination of charge carriers.
Hence, IB decreases with increasing collector-base junction voltage.
  With the increase in depletion region at the collector-base junction, the minority charge
concentration across the junction increases and hence reverses saturation current (IS)
increases. This in turn causes an increase in IC and IE proportionally.
 For extremely large voltages, the effective base width may get reduced to zero, causing
voltage breakdown in the transistor. This phenomenon is called punch through.

Terminal Voltages and Currents:

Terminal voltages:
 For an NPN transistor in its active region of operation, the base and collector are biased positive
with respect to the emitter.
 There are three junction voltages.
o VBE: voltage between base and emitter junction (0.7V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge)
Base of the NPN transistor is biased positive with respect to the emitter, hence the polarity of base is
positive and emitter is negative as shown in figure 2.5.a.
o VCE: voltage between collector and emitter junction
Collector of the NPN transistor is biased positive with respect to the emitter, hence the polarity of
collector is positive and emitter is negative as shown in figure 2.5.a.
o VCB: voltage between collector and base junction
Since VCE is very large compared to VBE, collector terminal is positive with respect to the base and the
polarity of VCB is as shown in figure 2.5.a.
(The biasing polarities of a PNP transistor are reverse to that of an NPN transistor. Hence all the
terminal voltage polarities get reversed.)

Fig. 2.5. (a) NPN terminal voltage polarities (b) PNP terminal voltage polarities

Transistor currents:
For an NPN transistor:
 The current flowing through the emitter terminal is referred to as the emitter current, IE and is
flowing out of the emitter terminal.
 The current flowing through the base terminal is referred to as the base current, IB and is
flowing into the base terminal.
 The current flowing through the collector terminal is referred to as the collector current, IC and
is flowing into the collector terminal.
 By applying KCL, the emitter current is the sum of base and collector current,
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
(All the current directions are in reverse for a PNP transistor)
 Fig. 2.6.(a) Terminal currents for NPN (b) Terminal currents for PNP

2.3.1. BJT modes of operation:

There are four modes of operation in BJT based on junctions biasing conditions as shown in
table2.1.
Table2.1 Modes of Operation in BJT
Junction bias conditions
Base-Emitter Collector-Base junction
Modes/ Region
junction(JBE) (JBC)
Active Forward Reverse
Cutoff Reverse Reverse
Saturation Forward Forward
Inverse-active Reverse Forward
Active mode/Region:
 The base-emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased and the base-collector junction is
reverse biased.
 BJT behaves as a current controlled current source. Collector current controlled by base
current.
 Output current, IC = βIB.
 This mode of operation is preferred for Amplifier design.
Cutoff mode/Region:
 Both the base-emitter junction and base-collector junction of the transistor are reverse biased.
 BJT behaves as an open switch.
 Output current, IC = 0.
Saturation mode/Region:
 Both the base-emitter junction and base-collector junction of the transistor are forward biased.
 BJT behaves as a closed switch.
 Output current is high.
For switching applications, a BJT is made to operate in saturation and cut-off regions alternately.
BJT configurations:
When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, one terminal is used as an input
terminal, the other terminal is used as an output terminal and the third terminal is common to
the input and output.
Depending upon the input, output and common terminal, a transistor can be connected in three
configurations:
 Common Base(CB) Configuration
 Common(CE) Emitter Configuration
 Common Collector(CC) Configuration
Common Base (CB) Configuration
 Emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and base is the common terminal
 IE - input current, IC - output current.
 Input voltage is VEB and output voltage is VCB.
 Common base dc current gain α = IC / IE.

Fig. 2.7: Common base transistor circuit.

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
 Base is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and emitter is the common terminal
 IB-Input Current , IC-Output current
 Input voltage is VBE and output voltage is VCE.
 Common emitter dc current gain β = IC / IB.

Fig. 2.8: Common emitter transistor circuit.

Common Collector (CC) Configuration
 Base is the input terminal, emitter is the output terminal and collector is the common terminal.
 IB-Input Current ,IE-Output Current.
 Input voltage is VBC and output voltage is VEC.
 Common Collector dc current gain γ = IE / IB.

Fig. 2.9: Common collector transistor circuit.

 Relation between current gains α, β and γ:

𝛃
 𝛂=
𝟏+𝛃
𝛂
𝛃 =
𝟏−𝛂
𝛃
γ=
𝛂
𝟏
 γ=
𝟏−𝛂
 γ = 1+β
BJT characteristics
 More details about a transistor configuration can be studied with the help of curves that relate
transistor currents and voltages. These curves are known as static characteristic curves.
 Two sets of characteristic curves completely describe the static operation of a transistor. They are
o input characteristic and
o output characteristic
 The input characteristic relates the input current with the input voltage, for a given output
voltage.
 Output characteristic relates the output current with the output voltage, for a given input
current.
Common Emitter(CE) characteristics:

Fig. 2.10: Circuit arrangement for determining common-emitter transistor characteristics.

A transistor, in a common emitter configuration, has also two important characteristics namely
input characteristics and output characteristics as discussed below:
Input Characteristics:-
 Plot between input current (IB) to the input voltage (VBE) for various levels of output voltage
(VCE).
 When VCE =0V, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, the junction behaves as a forward
biased diode. Hence, the characteristic is similar to that of a forward-biased diode.
 When VCE is increased keeping VBE constant, the width of the depletion region at the reverse-biased
collector-base junction will increase and effective width of the base will decrease (early effect). This
effect causes a decrease in the base current IB. Hence, the curve shift towards right as VCE is
increased.
 Fig. 2.10: Common emitter input characteristics

Output Characteristics:-
 Plot between output current (IC) to the output voltage (VCE) for various levels of input
current (IB).

Fig. 2.11: Common emitter output characteristics

Collector current, IC=βIB + (β+1) ICBO

The output characteristics has three regions, namely,

 cutoff region,
 saturation region and
 Active region.
 Cut-off Region:
 When IB=0μA, IC = (β+1) ICBO. That is,IC flows even when IB=0 due to minority carriers.
 Since IC ≈ IE ≈ 𝟎𝑨, this region is called cut-off region.
 Both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased.
 Saturation Region:
 Exponential increase in collector current (IC ) as the voltage VCE increases from 0V;
 Since IC reaches its maximum value, this region is called Saturation region.
 Both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward biased.
 Active Region:
 IC is independent of VCE , for a constant value of IB. That is, Output current(IC) depends on Input
current (IB) only.
IC ≈ βIB
 The curves are almost parallel to the axis of VCE.
 This region is called Active Region.
 Base-emitter junction is forward biased and base-collector junction is reverse biased.

BJT parameters:
𝚫𝐕𝐁𝐄
 Dynamic input resistance , 𝐡𝐢𝐞 or 𝐫𝐢 = 𝚫𝐈𝐁

𝜟𝑽𝑪𝑬
 Dynamic output resistance, 𝟏⁄𝒉 or 𝒓𝒐 =
𝒐𝒆 𝜟𝑰𝑪
 𝑰
 DC current gain,𝒉𝑭𝑬 𝒐𝒓 𝜷𝒅𝒄 = 𝑰 𝑪
𝑩

∆𝑰 𝑰𝑪𝟐 −𝑰𝑪𝟏
 AC current gain,𝒉𝒇𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝜷𝒂𝒄 = ∆𝑰𝑪 =
𝑩 𝑰𝑩𝟐 −𝑰𝑩𝟏

Transistor Biasing:
The bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are used in a large variety of applications and in many
different ways. The need for this biasing is to turn the device ON and to place it in a region where it
operates linearly and provides a constant amount of voltage gain.
The biasing deals with setting a fixed level of the current, which should flow through the transistor
with a desired fixed voltage drop across the transistor junctions.
Biasing: Application of external DC voltage to the transistor to maintain a specific level of terminal
voltages and currents in an amplifier circuit/switching circuits.
Need/Purpose for biasing: The operating point (Q-point) of an amplifier is to be fixed in the
middle of active region to produce symmetrical output without distortions (no clipping of signal)
and replica of the input signal applied for achieving this the trasnsistor circuit is to be properly designed
with proper biasing.
Operating Point: It is the intersection point of DC load line on device characteristic. It is denoted
as Q (operating voltage, operating current). The Quiescent point (Q-point) specifies the transistor
collector current and collector-to-emitter voltage when there is no signal at base terminal. (i.e., specifies
only DC conditions).
 Factors affecting stability of Q-Point: It will be interesting to know that even after the suitable
selection of Q-Point, it tends to shift from its position. It happens because of the following two
factors.
 1. Inherent variations of transistor parameter due to temperature: The collector current for
common-emitter amplifier is expressed by,

𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪𝑬𝑶 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩 + (𝜷 + 𝟏)𝑰𝑪𝑩𝑶

In this,
 𝛽 (increases with increase in temperature)
 |𝑉𝐵𝐸 | (decreases about 1.8 mV per ℃ increase in temperature)
 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 (doubles for every 10℃ rise in temperature).
Thermal runaway-Due to increase in temperature, 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 increases. Specifically, it doubles for
every 10ºC rise in temperature. This will increase 𝐼𝐶 which will make collector base junction
temperature to rise. This further increases 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 resulting in rise in𝐼𝐶 . This process will become
cumulative and collector base junction gets overheated. Consequently, when the power rating of
the transistor is exceeded, the transistor burns out.
2. Small variation in parameter values of transistors of the same type during manufacture
Stability Factor(S):
 It is defined as the rate of change of collector current with respect to rate of change of the reverse
saturation current, keeping 𝛽 and 𝑉𝐵𝐸 constant.
𝝏𝑰𝑪 ∆𝑰𝑪
𝑺= = ⎪
𝝏𝑰𝑪𝑶 ∆𝑰𝑪𝑶 𝜷 ,𝑽𝑩𝑬 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
We know that,
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷𝑰𝑩 + (𝜷 + 𝟏)𝑰𝑪𝑩𝑶
Differentiating the above equation with respect to 𝐼𝐶 ,
𝑑𝐼𝐵 𝑑𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
1=𝛽 + (𝛽 + 1)
𝑑𝐼𝐶 𝑑𝐼𝐶
𝑑𝐼𝐵 1+𝛽
Therefore, 1 − 𝛽( )=
𝑑𝐼𝐶 𝑆
𝟏+𝜷
𝑺= 𝒅𝑰
𝟏 − 𝜷( 𝒅𝑰𝑩 )
𝑪

 If stability factor ‘S’ is larger, the circuit stability will be poor and if it is unity, circuit stability will
be good.

DC Load line: It is a straight line drawn on the device (transistor) output characteristic. It shows
corresponding values of collector current, IC and collector-to-emitter voltage, VCE. To draw DC load line
(consider transistor circuit), apply KVL on the output circuit and get VCE and find Saturation point (Upper
end) and cut-off point (lower end) then draw a straight line by joining these two end points.
Methods of transistor biasing (Analysis of BJT biasing circuits)
Base Bias (Fixed bias) Collector to Base Bias Voltage Divider Bias
 The base current (IB) depends on applied  It has base resistor, RB connected between  Two resistors RC and RE are connected in series
voltage, VCC and base resistor, RB. If these collector and base terminals. with transistor. The resistors R1 and R2 divide the
two values are fixed and IB is fixed – so supply voltage and give base voltage, VB.
called fixed current bias.

 Circuit Analysis:  Circuit Analysis:  Circuit Analysis:

Input circuit:
Input circuit: Input circuit:

Thevnin’s equivalent circuit

By applying KVL, By applying KVL, VTh or VB =
𝑽𝑪𝑪 ∗𝑹𝟐
; 𝑹𝑻𝒉 =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
VCC - IB.RB - VBE =0 VCE - IBRB -VBE =0
By applying KVL,
𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬 IB =
𝑉𝐶𝐸 −𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑰𝑩 = 𝑅𝐵 VTh - IB 𝑹𝑻𝒉 - IERE - VBE =0;
𝑹𝑩
𝐕𝐂𝐄 − 𝐕𝐁𝐄 VTh - IB 𝑹𝑻𝒉 - (β+1)IBRE - VBE =0; (IE = (β+1)IB)
𝐈𝐂 = 𝛃𝐈𝐁 = 𝛃.
𝐑𝐁 𝑽𝑻𝒉 −𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝐕𝐂𝐂 − 𝐕𝐁𝐄 IB = ;
𝐈𝐂 = 𝛃𝐈𝐁 = 𝛃. 𝑹𝑻𝒉 +(𝟏+𝜷)𝑹𝑬
𝐑𝐁
𝐕𝐓𝐡 − 𝐕𝐁𝐄
𝐈𝐂 = 𝛃𝐈𝐁 = 𝛃.
Output circuit: 𝐑𝐓𝐡 + (𝟏 + 𝛃)𝐑𝐄
Output circuit: Output circuit:

VCC - IC.RC- VCE =0

VCE = VCC - IC.RC VCC- RC(IC + IB)- VCE =0
VCE = VCC- RC(IC + IB)
VCC - ICRC -VCE - IERE =0
VCC - ICRC -VCE - (β+1)IBRE =0
VCE =VCC - ICRC - (β+1)IBRE
 Stability factor:  Stability factor:  Stability factor:

𝟏+𝜷 𝑹𝑻𝑯
𝑺= (𝟏 + 𝜷)(𝟏 + )
𝑺=𝟏+𝜷 𝑹𝑬
𝜷𝑹𝑪 𝑺=
𝟏+ ⁄(𝑹 + 𝑹 ) 𝑹𝑻𝑯
 Poor stability 𝑪 𝑩 𝟏+𝜷+ 𝑹𝑬
 Moderately stable
𝑹𝑻𝑯
For small value of , S≅ 𝟏.
𝑹𝑬
 Good Stability
 DC Load line  DC Load line  DC Load line
We have the output equation, We have the output equation, We have the output equation,
VCE = VCC - IC.RC VCE =VCC- RC(IC + IB) VCE = VCC - IC(RC+RE)
By substituting IC = 0 mA, (cut-off condition) Neglecting IB , Substituting IC = 0 mA, (cut-off condition)
VCE = VCC VCE = VCC - IC.RC VCE = VCC
defining point A(VCC,0) for the load line on x- Substituting IC = 0 mA, (cut-off condition) defining point A(VCC,0) for the load line on x-axis.
axis. VCE = VCC By substituting VCE = 0 V, , (saturation condition)
By substituting VCE = 0 V, (saturation defining point A(VCC,0) for the load line on 𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑰𝑪 =
condition) x-axis. 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑬
𝑽
𝑽𝑪𝑪 By substituting VCE = 0 V, defining point B(0,𝑹 + 𝑹 ) for the load line on y-axis.
𝑪𝑪
𝑰𝑪 = 𝑪 𝑬
𝑹𝑪 𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑽 𝑰𝑪 =
defining point B(0, 𝑹𝑪𝑪 ) for the load line on y- 𝑹𝑪
𝑪 𝑽𝑪𝑪
axis. defining point B(0, 𝑹 ) for the load line on
𝑪
y-axis.
Bias circuit Design:
Design the base bias or Collector-to-base bias or Voltage divider bias circuit with Q-point (5V, 2 mA) and use 2N3904 transistor with current
gain (hFE or β) of 100. The circuit is supplied with 10V.{Given Data:VBE = 0.7 V, VCC = 10V, hFE = 100, VCE = 5V and IC = 2 mA}
Base bias Collector-to-base bias Voltage divider bias
Solution: Solution: Solution:

To find base current: IB = IC / hFE To find base current: IB = IC / hFE (By Stiff rule,𝑽𝑹𝒄 = 40% of VCC , VCE = 50% of VCC and
VE=10% of VCC)
IB = (2mA / 100) = 20 µA IB = (2mA / 100) = 20 µA
By thumb rule:
To find base resistor RB: To find base resistor RB: The voltage divider current, I2>>IB; I2 = (IC / 10)

𝑹𝑩 =
𝑽𝑪𝑬 −𝑽𝑩𝑬
=
𝟓−𝟎.𝟕
= 215 K𝛺 ≈ 220 K𝛺 To find base current: IB = IC / hFE
𝐕𝐂𝐂 −𝐕𝐁𝐄 𝟏𝟎−𝟎.𝟕 𝑰𝑩 𝟐𝟎µA
𝐑𝐁 = 𝐈𝐁
= 𝟐𝟎µA = 465 K𝛺≈ 470 K𝛺 IB = (2mA / 100) = 20 µA
To find voltage divider current: I2 = (IC / 10)
To find base resistor RC:
To find base resistor RC: = (2 mA / 10)
𝑽𝑪𝑪 −𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
= 0.2 mA or 200 µA>> IB
𝐕𝐂𝐂 −𝐕𝐂𝐄 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑹𝑪 = = = 2.47 K𝛺 ≈ 2.2 K𝛺 To find emitter resistor: RE = VE / IE, [Assume, IE ≈
𝑰𝑪 +𝑰𝑩 𝟐.𝟎𝟐mA
𝐑𝐂 = = = 2.5 K𝛺 ≈ 2.2 K𝛺
𝐈𝐂 𝟐mA IC]
RE≈ VE / IE
RE = (1V/ 2 mA) = 500𝛺 ≈ 𝟓𝟔𝟎𝜴
To find collector resistor:
RC = 𝑽𝑹𝒄 / IC = (VCC - VC) / IC
= (10 – 5 – 1) / (2 mA) = 2 K𝛺 ≈2.2 K𝛺
To find base voltage: VTh or VB = VBE + VE
VB = 0.7 + 1 = 1.7 V
To find resistor,R2 =VB / I2
= 1.7 / 0.2 mA =8.5 K𝛺≈8.2 K𝛺
From the circuit, I1= I2+ IB , by neglecting IB,
I1 ≈ I2
Designed Collector-to-Base Bias Circuit
To find resistor, R1 = (VCC – VB) / I1= (VCC – VB) / I2
Designed Base Bias circuit = (10 – 1.7)/ 0.2 mA = 41.5 K𝛺 ≈39 K𝛺
Designed Voltage divider bias
2.3 Amplification & Switching applications of BJT:
2.4.1. BJT Amplification:
Current Amplification
 A small change in the base current (ΔIB) produces a large change in collector current (ΔIC) and
a large emitter current change (ΔIE)
 The current gain is defined as the ratio of output current IC to input current IB keeping output
voltage VCE constant.
𝑰
DC Current gain, βdcor hFE = 𝑰 𝑪
𝑩
𝚫𝑰𝑪
AC Current gain, βacor hfe= 𝚫𝑰
𝑩

Fig.2.12: Base and Collector currents

Voltage Amplification
 A transistor will operate as an amplifier; if the DC conditions applied are in such a way that it
will bring the transistor into the active mode of operation.
 An AC signal source (𝑣𝑖 ) is connected in series with base terminal along with 𝑉𝐵 as shown in
figure 2.13. Whenever the amplitude of AC signal varies, base voltage (∆𝑉𝑏 ) will vary,
simultaneously changing the base current ΔIB.
 The changes in base current (∆𝐼𝐵 ) results in large change in collector current (∆𝐼𝐶 ).
 Thus ∆𝐼𝐶 produces collector voltage, 𝑉𝐶 variations (±∆𝑉𝐶 ) that are larger than the input
voltage changes (∆𝑉𝑏 ).
 Thus transistor behaves as a voltage amplifier.
 Voltage amplification or voltage gain is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage
and is given by,
∆𝐕𝐂 𝒗𝒐
𝐀𝐯 = =
∆𝐕𝐛 𝒗𝒊
 Fig:2.13: Basic Transistor Amplifier Circuit

2.4.2. BJT Switching:

Consider the circuits as shown in figure 2.14;
 When input voltage (𝑉𝑖 ) is at the zero level, both the junctions are reverse biased (i.e, Emitter-
Base junction is reverse biased due to the zero input voltage, Vi and Collector-Base junction is
reverse biased due to the applied VCC), hence 𝐼𝐵 = 0 and the transistor does not conduct [cut-off].
 Hence 𝐼𝐶 = 0 and thus 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 as shown in figure 2.14 (a). [open switch]

Fig.2.14: a) Transistor in cut-off (open switch) b) Transistor in saturation (closed switch)

 When 𝑉𝑖 is at positive level such that it is greater than cut in voltage of base-emitter junction
and voltage of collector-emitter terminals, both the junctions are forward biased. The base
current flows and the transistor conducts [saturation].
𝐼𝐶 is made large so that 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is very low (ideally zero) as shown in figure 2.14 (b).[closed switch]