Chapter twenty two

Machining operations and machine tools

Objective: To illustrate the important machining operations and the machine tools used
to perform them such as turning, drilling, milling and other machining operations.
22.1 Introduction:
Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all manufacturing processes in its
capability to produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features. Machined
parts can be classified as rotational or nonrotational. Rotational work part has a
cylindrical or disk-like shape. The characteristic operation that produces this geometry is
one in which a cutting tool removes material from a rotating work part such as turning
and boring. Drilling is closely related except that an internal cylindrical shape is created
and the tool rotates (rather than the work part) in most drilling operations. A
nonrotational (also called prismatic) work part is block-like or plate-like. This geometry
is achieved linear motions of the work part combined with either rotating or linear tool
motions such as milling, shaping, loaning and sawing. Each machining operation
produces a characteristic geometry due to two factors (1) the relative motion between the
tool and the work part (2) the shape of the cutting tool. In addition, the tool force analysis
and the power required for each operation will be illustrated in this chapter.
22.2 Turning and Related operations
Turning is a machine process in which a single-point tool removes material from the
surface of rotating cylindrical work piece; the tool is feed linearly in direction parallel to
the axis of rotation as shown in figure (22.1). Turning is traditionally carried out on a
machine tool called lathe, which provides power to turn the part at a given rotational
speed and to feed the tool at a specified rate and depth of cut.

44
22.2.1 Operation related to turning:
A variety of other machining operation can be performed on a lathe in addition to turning,
these include the following illustrate in figure (22.2).
1- Turning: Produce straight, conical, curve and grooved work part such as shafts,
spindles and pins. Turning has four different types
a) Straight turning: The tool moves parallel to the work part axis to produce
cylindrical shapes as in figure (22.2a).
b) Taper turning: The tool is fed at an angle not parallel to the work part to
produce tapered cylinder or conical shape as in figure (22.2b).
c) Profile turning (Contour turning): The tool follows a contour that is other than
straight, thus creating a contoured from in the turned part as in figure (22.2c)
d) External groove: The tool fed parallel and perpendicular to the part axis to
produce groove in the part as in figure (22.2d)

2- Facing: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat
surface on the end or to produce O-ring seat as in figure (22.2e,f)

45
3- Cutting with form tools (forming): The tool has a shape that is imported to the work by
plunging the tool radially into the work as in figure (22.2g) to produce axisymmetric
shapes.
4- Boring: A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation on the inside
diameter of an existing hole in the part as in figure (22.2h). used to enlarge a hole or
cylindrical cavity made by a previous process or to produce circular internal groove.
5- Drilling: Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating
work along its axis as in figure (22.2i). It is used to produce holes.

6- Parting (cutting off): The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location
along its length to cut off the end of the part as in figure (22.2j). It is used to separate the
work into two pieces.
7- Threading: The tool is fed linearly a cross the outside surface of the rotating work part
in direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating
threads in the cylinder as in figure (22.2k). It is used to produce external or internal
threads.
8- Knurling: It is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular cross-hatched
pattern in the work surface such as knob as in figure (22.2l)
9- Chamfering: The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the
cylinder to form a chamfer as in figure (22.2m).

46
22.2.2 Tool geometry
The general shape of the turning cutting tool was illustrated in chapter 21, figure (21.9).
For more detailed diagram is presented in figure (22.3). From figure (22.3), the tool
parameters are
1- Rake angle: There are two rake angles, back and side rake angles depend on the
orientation of the rake face. The rake angle controls the direction of the chip flow across
the rake face. Control the strength of the tool tip and improve the cutting operation
2- Relief angle: There are two angles, end and side relief angles. They determine the
amount of clearance between the tool and the freshly cut work surface. They control the
interface and rubbing at the tool work part interface. If the relief angle is too large, then
failure will occur at the tool tip. If the relief angle is too small, then flank wear will occur.
3- Cutting edge angle: there are two angles, side and end cutting edge angles. The side
cutting edge angle determine the entry of the tool into the work and used to reduce the
sudden force the tool experiences as it enters work part. On the other hand, the end
cutting edge angle provides a clearance between the trailing edge of the tool and the
newly generated work surface, thus reducing rubbing and friction against the surface. In
general, the cutting edge angle effects on the chip formation, the tool strength and the
cutting force.
4- Nose radius: Effect on surface finishing and the tool strength. If the nose radius is
small, then rough surface will be produced and decreasing in the tool strength. If the nose
radius is too large, it will lead tool chatter.

47
22.2.3 Force analysis:
The resultant force acting on the cutting tool tip
has three components as shown in figure (22.4).
These components are
1- Cutting force (Fc) acts downward on the tool
tip.
2-Thrust force (Ft) act longitudinal direction. Also
it is called feed force because it is in the feed
direction.
3- Radial force (Fr): act on the radial direction and
tend to push the tool away from the work piece. The thrust and radial forces are measured
experimentally.
The material removal rate (MRR) in turning is the volume of material removed per unit
time with units of mm3/min
MRR=πD avg dfN =dfv (22.1)
48
 Do + Df
D avg =
2 (22.2)
l
t=
Cutting time fN (22.3)
Davg
T =F c
Torque 2 (22.4)
Davg
P=T ×ω=F c ω
Power 2 (22.5)
Where Do, Df are the initial and the final diameter of the work part respectively. d is the
depth of cut, f is the feed rate (mm/rev), N is the rotating speed of the machine, v is the
cutting speed and ω is the angular velocity of the machine.
The turning operation reduces the diameter of the work piece from the original diameter
Do to a final diameter Df as determined by the depth of cut d where
D f =D0 −2 d (22.6)
The feed in turning is generally expressed in mm/rev. This feed can be converted to a
linear travel rate in mm/min by the following formula
f r =Nf (22.7)
Where fr is the feed rate mm/min and f is the feed rate in mm/rev. Table (22.1) tabulated
the specific energy for different materials (Uc= Ut)

49
Example 1
6 in long 0.5 in diameter 304 stainless steel rod is being reduced in diameter to 0.48 in by
turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at 400 rpm and the tool traveling at the axial
speed of 8 in/min. find the cutting speed, MRR, cutting time, power and cutting force.
Solution:
1- Cutting speed
Cutting speed the outer surface
v=πD o N =π (0. 5 )(400 )=628 in /min
Cutting speed at the machined diameter
v=πDf N =π (0 . 48 )(400 )=603 in /min
2- Depth of cut
Do −D f 0 . 5−0. 48
d= = =0. 01 in
2 2
3- Feed
fr 8
f= = =0 . 02in /rev
N 400
4- Material removal rate MRR

MRR=πD avg dfN =π ( 0 . 5+0 . 48

2 )
( 0 . 01 )( 0. 02 ) ( 400 )=0 .123 in 3 /min

50
5- Cutting time
l 6
t= = =0. 75 min
fN ( 0. 02 ) ( 400 )
6- Power
From table 22.1, the specific energy for stainless steel range (1.1-1.9), take the average of
these values, then the specific energy is equal to 1.5 hp-min/in3
Power (P) = (Ut)(MRR) = (1.5)(0.123) = 0.1845 hp
Convert the power from hp to Ib.in/min
1 hp = 396000 in Ib/min
0.1845 hp = 73062 Ib.in/min

7- Torque
Power 73062
T= = =29 Ib. in
2 πN 2 π ( 400)
8- Cutting force Fc
Torque 29
F c= = =118 Ib

( )( )
Davg
2
0 . 49
2
22.3 Drilling
Drilling is a machining operation used to create a round hole in the work part. Drilling is
usually performed with a rotating cylindrical tool that has two cutting edges on its
working end. The tool is called a drill or drill bit. The rotating drill feeds into the
stationary work part to form a hole whose diameter is equal to drill diameter. Drilling is
customarily on a drill press. During drilling the chip moves opposite to the drill motion.
22.3.1 Tool geometry
Various cutting tools are available for hole making, but the twist drill is the most
common. Twist drills are widely used in industry to produce holes rapidly and
economically. The geometry of the twist drill is illustrated in figure (22.5).
The body of the drill has two spiral flutes (the spiral gives the twist drill its name). The
angle of the spiral flutes is called the helix angle, a typical value of which is ranged from

51
15o- 30o. While drilling, the flutes act as passageways for extraction of chip from the
hole. Although it is desirable for the flute opening to be large to provide maximum
clearance for the chips, the body of the drill must be supported over its length. This
support is provided by the web, which is the thickness of the drill between the flutes.
The point of the twist drill has a conical shape, a typical for the point angle is range from
118o-135o. The point can be design in various ways but the most common design is the
chisel edge. Connected to the chisel edge are two cutting edges which called lips that
lead into the flutes. The angle of the chisel edge angle is ranging from 125o-135o. The
portion of each flute adjacent to the cutting edge acts as the rake face of the tool. In
addition the lip relief angle is used to allow the chip to pass through the drill flute; this
angle is ranging from 7o-15o.
The advantages of the above angles in the drilling tool are to produce accurate holes, to
minimize the drilling force and the applied torque and to optimize the drilling life.

22.3.2 Drilling types

There are various types of drilling tool as illustrate in figure (22.6)
52
1- Twist drill: discussed in section 22.3.1
2- Core drill: To make existing hole larger
3- Step drill: produce holes with two or more different diameter
4- Counter boring: provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter follows a smaller
diameter partially into the hole. It is used to seat bolt heads into a hole so the heads do not
protrude above the surface.
5- Counter sinking: This is similar to counter boring except that the step in the hole is
cone-shaped for flat head screws and bolts.
6- Reaming: Reaming is used to enlarge a hole, to provide a better tolerance on its
diameter and to improve its surface finish. It has straight flutes.
7- Centering: Also it is called center drilling, this operation drills a starting hole to
accurately establish its location for subsequent drilling. The tool is called center drill.
8- Gun drill: used to drill very deep holes. It has depth/diameter ration 300/1 and it has
self center. The drill cutting speed is very high but the feed is too low. In addition, cutting
fluid is forced under high pressure through longitudinal hole in the body hole for
lubrication and cooling the work piece. The bearing (wear) pads is used to balance the
radial force.
9- Spade drill: has removable lips (inserts), used to produce large diameter and deep
holes. The drill stiffness is very high so that the drill is easy to grinding the cutting edge.
Its cost is low,
10- Straight flute drill: similar to the spade drill except there are no removable lips
(inserts).
11- Carbide drill: used for drilling hard material as cast iron and high temperature
material and abrasive materials such as (concrete and bricks), composite materials such
as reinforcement materials.

53
54
22.3.3 Force analysis
1- Cutting force Fc in drilling depend on the work material strength, feed, rotational sped,
drill diameter, drill geometry and cutting fluid. The force Fc is difficult to calculate so it
measured experimentally.
2- The rate of metal removal in drilling (MRR) is
πD2 fN
MRR=
4 (22.8)
3- The power and the torque are calculated as in example 1 using the specific energy
found in table (22.1) where
Power = (Uc) (MRR) = (Torque)(ω) (22.9)
4- Machining time (Tm) required to drill a through hole can be calculated using the
following formula see figure (22.7a)
t+ A
T m=
fN (22.10)

55
Where A is an approach allowance that accounts for the drill point angle, representing the
distance the drill must feed into the work before reaching full diameter.

(
A=0 .5 D tan 90−
θ
2 ) (22.11)
In a blind-hole (figure 22.7 b), the hole depth d is defined as the distance from the work
surface to the point of the hole. In this case, the drill point angle and the approach
allowance doesn’t affect the time drill the hole so
d
T m=
fN (22.12)

Example 2:
A hole is being drilled in a block of magnesium alloy with 10 mm drill bit, at a feed of 0.2
mm/rev and with the spindle running at N = 800 rpm. Determine the MRR, torque and
the power P. Also determine the drilling time if the drill make a blind hole of 3 cm.
πD2 fN π (10 )2 (0 .2 )(800 ) mm 3 mm 3
MRR= = =12570 =210
4 4 min sec
The specific energy for magnesium alloy range from 0.4-0.6 W.s/mm3 so that
U = (0.4+0.6)/2 = 0.5 W.s/mm3
The power required to make the required drilling is
56
 P = (U) (MRR) = (0.5)(210) = 105 W
P 105
T= = =1 .25 N . m
The torque ω (2 π )(800 )/60
d 30 mm
T m= = =0. 19 min
The drilling time for blind hole is fN (0 .2 )(800 )
22.3.4 Drill press
The drill press is the standard machine tool for drilling. There are various types of drill
press, these types are
1- Upright (vertical) drill: The vertical drill stands on the floor and consists of a table for
holding the work part, a drilling head with powered spindle for the drill bit and a base and
column for support as shown in figure (22.8a).
2- Bench drill: Similar to the vertical drill but it is smaller and mounted on a table rather
than the floor.
3- Radial drill: Is a large drill press designed to cut holes in large parts. It has a radial arm
along which the drilling head can be moved and clamped. The head therefore can be
positioned along the arm at locations that are a significant distance from the column to
accommodate large work as shown in figure (22.b)
4- Gang drill: is a drill press consisting of a series of two to six upright drills connected
together on an in-line arrangement. Each spindle is powered and operated independently,
and they are share a common worktable, so that a series of drilling and related operations
can be accomplished in sequence (e.g. centering, drilling, reaming, counter boring)
simply cy sliding the work part along the worktable from one spindle to the next.
5- Multiple-spindle drill: Several drill spindles are connected together to drill multiple
holes simultaneously into the work part.
6- Numerical control drill presses (three axis computer drilling machine): used to control
the holes in the work part. These drill presses are often equipped with turrets to hold
multiple tools that can be indexed under control of the NC program. The term CNC turret
drill is used for these machine tools. Normally, the turret consists of eight different
drilling tools as shown in figure (22. 8c)

57
58
59