Name : Aakritee Bohara

Section : ‘A’

Roll Number: 01

1.1 Concept, Nature and Scope of IR

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY:

"Official relations among states" - Jeremy Bentham

"IR encompasses much more than relations among nation states and international organizations
and groups. It includes variety of international relationships at different levels, above and below
the state level in the international system." - Palmer and Perkins

IR is relatively a new field of study which basically originated post WWI era (1918's) slowly amd
gradually.
Later on IR became an academic discipline in 1919 when the university of Wales established
department of IR .

At the beginning it was considered as the branch of political science which provided frameworks
for understanding the world and its up going issues. IR covered political and social issues at the
beginnings to bring the states in contact.

Economic organizations as World Bank IMF, BRICS, ASEAN played important part in managing
international relations. Gradually Ir covered the area of national power, national interest, security
studies, war and diplomacy, nuclear proliferation, foreign polices and now it covers not only these
area but also environmental issues, globalization law, history, human rights.
IR covers each and every issues related to states in global level.

Peace of westphalia 1648, emergence of nation state, colonization, world wars, decolonization etc
are the factors for the emergence of IR as a subject.

NATURE OF IR:

In conservative view nature of IR is only limited to the official relations with the states but in broad
view IR not only deals with official relations among the states but also all the matters that affects
the relations among the states.
Eg: Any propaganda of state, non-government
organizations,policies of other states can effect the relationships between states.

When we se IR as a discipline it seems as amalgamation of all subjects as it covers all ares as

politics, economics, history, anthropology, environment, foreign policies etc.

Nation acts a a primary actor and key concept of IR as international politics is primarily the process
of interaction among nations. It focuses on national interest by the protection of physcial, political
and cultural identity against encroachment by other nation-states . Ir secures national interest

Conflict acts as the condition of national politics as the national interests of all the states is neither
compatible nor as fully be fulfilled and this incompatibility causes the conflict at international levels
and the process of accomodation, adjustment, reconciliation and corporation creates the
compatibility among states which is part of international politics and relations.

IR focuses on continuous interaction among the states.

Every nation try to resolve their conflicts by means of power and resources which creates
continues interaction among them.

This interaction among foreign nations is done through their foreign policies which defines own's
goals of national interest as well as means to be used to secure them.

Hence IR revolves around nation interest, interest, foreign policies, power, resources, means,
conflict resolution etc.
IR is dynamic and its nature changes with time and situations.

SCOPE OF IR:

Just like other fields of physics, chemistry in IR we study about International Society which is the
scope of IR. Scope of IR is endless according to time and society.
Main points included in scope of IR:
1. Evolution ans structure of international society
2. The actions on the international scenes
3. The pattern of their behavior and the driving forces behind their actions
4. Problem of international planning

While reviewing the scope of IR before world war and after world war to recent days we can see
how dynamic it is. Before 1st world war IR initially dealed only with the study of diplomatic history
and gradually it was confined to the study of contemporary foreign affairs and later on emphasis
was laid on the study of International law.

After 1st world war it began to study within the framework of international law and league of
nation was established to maintain peace . Hence from here IR included international organizations
and institutions as a scope.

After 2nd world war drastic changes occured in the scope of IR after the emergence of USA and
USSR as two superpowers.
After this IR was replaced on scientific study instead of traditional
Approach. Scope expanded to military policy and behavior of political leaders of the country.

In present time, SCOPE of IR studies on diplomacy history, international politics, international

organizations and administration, international law, psychological study.
Name: Anamol Bajal

1.3 Development of International Relations

IRs as an academic discipline is of a recent origin, yet relations among nations

were as old phenomena as history. There were inter-tribal, inter-city state and
inter-kingdom relations even in the ancient age. But in ancient world,
international relations were incidental, sporadic and limited in nature. Its study
as an autonomous discipline is of comparatively recent origin. This discipline
is so new that it can be called as the youngest of all social sciences. Hence, its
genesis was in the first half of the twentieth century and attained its adulthood
in the post- Second World War period passing through several ups and downs.

Development of IRs can be outlined as follows:-

1. First stage of IRs (up to end of First World War)

It was taught by diplomatic historians who focused on the description of past
events.
2. Second stage (after First World War)
Study of current affairs and so remained partial
3. Third stage (after First World War through inter-war years)
Liberalism adopted moralistic legalistic approach and renounced war. Much
hope was pinned on the international organizations (league) and international
law to establish healthy world order free of war and conflict. It was, thus,
utopian. 4. Fourth stage (after Second World War)
Utopian views were under eraser due to emergence of realists in 1950s, and
early 60s, for them power is a means, as well as end in itself. International
politics is nothing but struggle for power. Every state seeks more power to use
and with its help fulfill other important national interests.
5. Fifth stage (mid sixties to the seventies)
Neo-liberalism emerged that focused on pluralism and interdependence
model. Study of multiple actors and interdependence of states or non-state
actors and entities.
6. Sixth stage (late seventies to first half of eighties)
Neo-realism with structures focused on interest which is needed to be
 protected. Third world and non-western perspective towards IRs came to the
forefront. 7. Seventh stage (after 1985 to 1990)
Gorbachev’s “new political thinking “ bid farewell to cold war and advocated
balance of interests, cooperation, internationalization, disarmament, defense
and de-idealizations of inter-state relations.
8. Eighth stage (from early 1990s onward)
Focus on regionalism, heyday of USA, resurgence of democratic values and
rapid globalization broadened the scope and subject matter of IRs.
Thus, international relations is inter disciplinary and of recent origin. It
developed from liberalism to realism, neo-liberalism to neo-realism and so on.
It has created independent statues being separated from political science,
history and law. It is still on the making.

1.4 Recent trends in contemporary International Relations and the significance of diplomacy in
foreign policy

Recent trends in contemporary IRs

We can explain recent trends in contemporary IRs as follows :

1. Recent economic trend

2. Recent political trend
3. Recent socio-cultural trend

1.Recent economic trend

Nations are in the race to become economic powerhouse as they know that it is the key to
becoming global leader . Here are following economic trends that are found at the present global
senario :

(a) Economic disequilibrium : Gaps between rich and poor countries . Moving from inequitable to
inhuman .
(b) Globalization and liberalization : Expansion and intesification of linkages and flow of people,
service , goods, capital , ideas and cultures across borders .
(c) Technology gap : High income and low income countries have this gap .
(d) Regional integration : Three trends : growing free trade areas , enlarging economic integration
and more economic agreements .
(e) Search for renewable source of energy : Looking for alternative energy sources .
(f) International trade : Countries uses various trade instruments of foreign policy .

2. Recent political trends

Aristotelian ' political being ' started to behave in a surprising and unpredictable manner that
gave impetus ( force ) to the following political trends in IR :
 (a) Reinventing state sovereignty : Sovereignty not only within the border but also beyond state
border due to technological advancement .
(b) " War on terror " as a pressing global issue : Unequivocal voice against the act of terror ,
whatever it's forms and manifestation may be .
(c) Politically multi-polar world : Bi-polar world is old phenomena , new states are emerging as
political clout ( influence , cuff ) . China , Brazil , Indonesia , Russia are playing active role in
the world politics .
(d) Surging wave of democracy in the world : Dictators are surrendering before people’s free
will and desire for popular ruling . No alternative of democracy in world .
(e) New diplomacy gaining more weight age : Public opinions within and outside countries are
gaining proper attentions from doers of diplomacy .

3.Recent socio-cultural trends

Social issues are gaining focused attention from the members of international community . It
would be rational to enlist following international social trends as the major factors influencing
International Relations :

(a) Renewed attention towards environmental problems : Climate change , pollution , industrial
wastages , emission of carbons , depleting ozone layer are looming large as global problems ,
etc .
(b) Emergence of religious fundamentalism : In the name of stopping hegemony or high-
handedness of western bullies , seed of " Jihad " , " Fatah " are sworn that has given birth to
religious fanatics .
(c) Threat of cultural amalgamation ( mixture or combination ) : Western cultures supported by
machination are shadowing the bright aspects of eastern cultural saga or heritage under the
banner of " global culture " .
(d) Ethnic cleansing and civilization war or conflict : Violence over ethnic minority and conflict
among different groups to protect and promote their own ethical or racial identity are
shifting the nature of conflict

Observing the above three trends of contemporary IRs , one can sum up that the dawn
of twenty first century is demanding rational mind , honest heart and responsible shoulders of
international community toward off negative international trends and enhance positive trends for
the well being of this planet dwellers.

Significance of Diplomacy in foreign policy

General objectives that guide the activities and relationship of one state in it’s interactions with
other states is foreign policy . The significance of diplomacy in foreign policy is given below :

• The main significance of diplomacy is to ensure peaceful relations between countries . This might
include negotiation trade deals , discussing mutual problems , implementation new policies and
tackling disputes .

• To prevent war , violance and fortifying relations between two nations .

• To create harmony with other countries .

• Representing a state's interests and conducting negotiations or discussions designed to identify

common interests as well as areas of disagreement between the parties , for the purpose of
achieving the state's goals and avoiding conflicts .
• Gathering the information and subsequent identification and evaluation of the receiving state's
foreign policy goals .

• Expansion of political , economic and cultural ties between countries .

• It is the facilitating or enforcing vehicle for the observation of international law .

2.1 Balance of Power in

International System

Content

 Understanding Balance of Power

 Method of Bop

 Significance of Balance of Power

 Conclusion

1. Balance of Power

BOP refers to the relative power position of state

as actor. It is a part and parcel of a system of
power politics. It emphasizes on the cultivation
and utilization of power for resolving the problem
of power. Different states manipulate and group
themselves in such a way that no single nation is
strong enough to dominate others because its
power is balanced by that of a rival group. It is
believed that so long as this kind of balance is
established, there is peace and security. Moreover
independence of small countries is also protected.

According to Palmer and Perkins, ‘concept of

balance of power assumes that through shifting
alliances and countervailing pressures, no one
power or combination of power will be allowed to
grow as strong as to threaten the security of the
rest.’

“Just equilibrium in power among the of the

family of nations as will prevent any one of them
from becoming sufficiently strong to enforce its
will upon the others” - Fay

2. Means and Methods of BOP

BOP can be maintained and sustained through

means, techniques, methods and devices which are
as follows:

 Armaments and disarmament

  Alliances and counter alliances

 Compensation and partition

 Intervention and non-intervention

 Divide and rule

 Buffer state

 Domestic methods

3. Significance of BOP
Though critics call BOP classical phrase with
obsolete and out dated context, one can explore
numerous relevance and significance of BOP. Its
advocates have identified following merits of
BOP:
 1. Ensures peace: In the absence of collective
security, it ensures peace in the world. One
power and its hegemony is checked by
another power that averts aggression or war.
2. Discourages war: As a state doesn’t hope to
win the war, it won’t initiate war because its power
is in equilibrium with a potential victim.

3. Controls imperialism: It controls hegemony

and universal imperialism because no power is
powerful enough to overwhelm the rest.
4. Guarantees justice: It acts as the deterrent to
the grandiose ambition of the state.
5. Maintains international law: Oppenheim
opines that BOP is an essential means to maintain
international law.
6. Preserves independence: It preserves the
independence of small states. One power prevents
the other power from threatening the independence
of other states.
7. Preserves the state system: It preserves the
multi-state system by serving the cause of peace,
justice, law and independence.
4. Conclusion

Taken as an theory of state behavior and basic

principle of foreign policy, BOP is based on the
principle that two states or two coalition of states
are in balance if they are equally powerful.
Nations group themselves in such a way that no
single nation or group of nations is strong enough
to dominate others. It is regarded as realist theory
because it assumes that states are committed to
protect their vital interests through all possible
means.

2.2 interdependency and dependency

1) interdependency
Interdependency analyzes not only one - side but also mutual
dependency dependence relationship. Regarding the
relationship between periphery and center, this means that
not only the first is dependent on the second but also that
both are dependent on each other.

Interdependence most simply defined means mutual

dependence. Interdependence in world politics refers to
situations characterized by reciprocal effects among
countries or among actors in different countries.

Interdependence involves interconnection / linkages among

actors and system of Interrelationship of actors. Yet,
Interdependence means more than simple interconnected. It
requires a relationship in which two or more parties are
linked in a system of action in such a way that changes in
meaningful way on the attainment of needs value and/or
desired outcomes of the others. In other words, the
satisfaction of each party's needs and values is contingent to
some degree on the behavior of others.

2) Dependency

Dependency theory is the concept that resources flow from a

periphery of poor and underdeveloped state to a core of
wealthy states. It is central state go argument of dependency
theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones
enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the
'world system'. Dependency, in international relations, a
weak state dominated by the jurisdiction of a more powerful
state but not formally annexed (take over) by it. The
dominant state may control some of the weak state's affairs,
such as defense, foreign relations, and internal security and
allow its autonomy in domestic affairs such as infrastructural
development, education, and health.

According to dependency theory, underdevelopment is

mainly caused by the peripheral position of affected
countries in the world economy. Typically, underdeveloped
countries offer cheap labour and raw materials on the world
market. These resources are sold to advanced economies,
which have the means to transform them into finished goods.
Underdeveloped countries end up purchasing the finished
products at high prices, depleting the capital they might
otherwise devote to upgrading their own productive
capacity. The result is a vicious cycle that perpetuates the
division of the world economy between a rich core and a
poor periphery.

2.3 Impact of globalization

What does globalization mean?
Globalization refers to the spread of the flow of financial
products, goods, technology, information, and jobs across
national borders and cultures. It is the word used to describe
the growing interdependence of the world’s economies,
cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade
in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment,
people, and information. Countries have built economic
partnerships to facilitate these movements over many
centuries.

Globalization and International relations

As more nations, people, and cultures adapt to the ever
changing international community, diplomats, politicians, and
representatives must meet and deal with accordingly to the
needs and wants of nations. Diplomacy can be exerted in
many forms; through peace talks, written constitutions, field
experiences, etc. Culture is a familiar term and remains
unchanged by definition. However, globalization and
international relations have constantly altered culture both
positively and negatively. Globalization increases worldwide
technology, and the readability of fast, effective
communication and consumption of popular products.
Globalization links cultures and international relations on a
variety of levels; economics, politically, socially, etc.
International relations have used globalization to reach its
goal: of understanding cultures. International relations focus
on how countries, people and organizations interact and
globalization is making a profound effect on International
relations. Understanding culture, globalization, and
international relations is critical for the future of not only
governments, people, and businesses, but for the survival of
the human race. In today’s increasingly interdependent and
turbulent world, many of the leading issues in the news
concern international affairs. Whether it is the continuing
impact of globalization, Globalization – the process of
continuing integration of the countries in the world – is
strongly underway in all parts of the globe. It is a complex
interconnection between capitalism and democracy, which
involves positive and negative features, that both empowers
and disempowers individuals and groups. From the other hand
Globalization is a popular term used by governments,
business, academic and a range of diverse non-governmental
organizations. It also, however, signifies a new paradigm
within world politics and economic relations. While national
governments for many years dictated the international
political and economic scene, international organizations such
as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the
World Trade Organization have now become significant role
players. In this “Global Village” national governments have
lost some of their importance and perhaps their powers in
favour of these major international organizations. As a
process of interaction and integration among people,
companies and governments of different nations Globalization
is a process driven by the International Trade and Investment
and aided by Information technology. This process on the
environment on culture, on political system, on economic
development and prosperity, and on human physical well-
being in societies around the world.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization
Globalization has a range of advantages while it has also
disadvantages. The Advantages include
 GDP Increase; statistics shows that GDP in developing
countries has increased twice as much as before.
Unemployment is reduced.
Education has increased. Competition on Even Platform: The
Companies all around the world are competing on a single
global platform which allows better options o consumers.
It increased fee trade between nations; The Corporations have
greater flexibility to operate across borders. Global mass
media ties the world together.
Increased flow of communications allows vital information to
be shared between individuals and corporations around the
world.
It increases in environmental protection in developed nations.
Spread of democratic ideas to developed nations.
Reduced cultural barriers increases in the global village effect.
The Disadvantages are considered to be Uneven Distribution
of Wealth, Income Gap Between Developed and Developing
Countries, where the wealth of developed countries continues
to grow twice as much as the developing world.
Next disadvantage is Different Wage Standards for
Developing Countries, which is explained by the following fat
that the technology worker may get more value for his work
in a developed country than a worker in a developing country
thus there are in the later many dynamic, industrious and
enterprising people who are well educated and ready to work
with rigor.
The reveal of Globalization is also considered as a
disadvantage which is explaining by future factors such as
war that can be demand the reveal of the globalization and
current process of globalization may just be impossible to
reverse.
There is also another aspect of disadvantage of globalization
in media sphere. The threat that control of world media by a
handful of corporations will limit cultural expression.
And the final in my estimation is the chance of reactions for
globalization being violent in an attempt to preserve cultural
heritage.
Effects of Globalization
With the roster of the mentioned disadvantages and
advantages Globalization culminates also effective facts. The
following are considered the Effects of Globalization;
 enhancement in the information flow between
geographically remote locations
 the global common market has a freedom of exchange of
goods and capital
 there is a broad access to a range of goods for consumers
and companies
 worldwide production markets emerge
 free circulation of people of different nations leads to social
benefits
 global environmental problems like cross-boundary
pollution, over fishing on oceans, climate changes are solved
by discussions
 more trans border data flow using communication satellites,
the Internet, wireless telephones, etc.
 international criminal courts and international justice
movements are launched
 the standards applied globally like patents, copyright laws
and world trade agreements increase
 corporate, national and sub-national borrowers have a better
access to external finance
 worldwide financial markets emerge
 multiculturalism spreads as there is individual access to
cultural diversity. This diversity decreases due to
hybridization or assimilation
 international travel and tourism increases
 worldwide sporting events like the Olympic Games and the
FIFA World Cup are held
 enhancement in worldwide fads and pop culture
 local consumer products are exported to other countries
 immigration between countries increases
 cross-cultural contacts grow and cultural diffusion takes
place  there is an increase in the desire to use foreign ideas
and products, adopt new practices and technologies and be a
part of world culture
 free trade zones are formed having less or no tariffs
 due to development of containerization for ocean shipping,
the transportation costs are reduced
 subsidies for local businesses decrease
 capital controls reduce or vanquish
 there is supranational recognition of intellectual property
restrictions, i.e., patents authorized by one country are
recognized in another.

3.1 Idealism
Concept of Idealism in IR
In general concept, idealism is the metaphysical view that associates realities to
ideas in the mind rather than to mankind subjects. Plato is the father of Idealism
the mentioned ideal in his famous work, ‘Republica’.The concept of idealism
was developed in 19th century.
Idealism stands for improving the course of international relations by
eliminating war, hunger, inequality, tyranny, force, suppression and violence
from international relations. Idealism accepts the possibility of creating a world
free from these evils by depending upon reason, science and education.
The Idealist Approach holds that old, ineffective and harmful modes of behavior
i.e., war, use of force and violence should be abandoned in favor of new ways
and means as determined by knowledge, reason, compassion and self-restraint.

“Political idealism in international relations represents a set of ideas which

together oppose war and advocate the reform of international community
through dependence upon moral values and the development of international
institutions and international law.”
“A world full of human happiness is not beyond human power to achieve.” —
Bertrand Russell
The Idealist Approach advocates morality as the means for securing the desired
objective of making the world an ideal world. It believes that by following
morality and moral values in their relations, nations can not only secure their
own development, but also can help the world to eliminate war, inequality,
despotism, tyranny, violence and force. As such Idealism advocates the need for
improving relations among nations by removing the evils present in the
international environment.
Features of idealism in IR
1. Human nature is essentially good and capable of good deeds in international
relations.
2. Human welfare and advancement of civilization are the concerns of all.
3. Bad human behavior is the product of bad environment and bad institutions.
4. By reforming the environment, bad human behavior can be eliminated.
5. War represents the worst feature of relations.
6. By reforming international relations, war can be and should be eliminated.
7. Global efforts are needed to end war, violence and tyranny from international
relations.
8. International community should work for eliminating such global
instruments, features and practices which lead to war.
9. International institutions committed to preserve international peace,
international law and order should be developed for securing peace, prosperity
and development.

Liberal- Idealism within International Relations theory, revolves around three

interrelated principles:

 Rejection of power politics.

 Mutual benefits and International cooperation.
 The role of international Organisations and non-government actors in
shaping state preferences and policy choices.
Liberals believe that international institutions play a key role in cooperation
among states via interdependence. There are three main components of
interdependence. States interact in various ways, through economic, financial,
and cultural means; security tends to not be the primary goal in state-to-state
interactions; and military forces are not typically used.

The main supporters of idealism

The main supporters of idealism have been Mahatma Gandhi, Bertrand Russell,
Woodrow Wilson, Aldous Huxley, William Ladd, Richard Cobben, Margret
Mead, and others. They strongly oppose the realist view of international politics
as struggle for power and national interest and advocate the use of reason,
education and science for securing reforms in relations and for eliminating war
and other evils from international relations.
a. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)
Gandhism is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision and the idea of
non-violence. The two pillars of Gandhism are Truth and Non-Violence.
‘Satyagraha’ is the heart of Gandhism, which means the idea of non-violent
resistance.
b. Bertrant Russell(1872-1917)
Bertrant Russell was a prominent anti-war activist focus on metaphysics, which
is inherent or universal elements of reality which are not easily discovered or
experienced in our everyday life.
c. Woodrow Wilson(1856-1924)
“Idealism is foreign policy holds that a state should make its internal political
philosophy the goal of its foreign policy” for example an idealist might believe
that ending poverty at home should be taking poverty abroad.

Criticisms of Idealism
It has also been criticized on the fact that it “minimizes considerations of power,
and assumes that norms of right behavior can substitute for national capabilities
and material interests and that it neglects political prudence.” (Goldsmith &
Krasner, 2003)
This means that the fact that the theory of Idealism refuses to acknowledge
power as a key component of international relations, it will always be lacking in
effect. Some people have argued the only way to achieve total peace and
cooperation is through realism.
Conclusion
Idealism mainly focus on ideas, philosophy, truth, peace etc. But in real life pure
idealism doesn’t exist. We can follow idealism, realism, constructivism all of
these ‘ism’ with limited way for development of country. In international
relation and diplomacy all ‘ism’ are important with idealism.

***

4.1 Diplomacy : Meaning, Nature and

Scope
1. Introduction
Diplomacy is a basic means by which a
nation seeks to secure the
goals of its national interest. Sometimes
it is described as “the art of
telling lies on behalf of the nation”.
Diplomacy is one of essential
means of any state in this 21st century.
2. Meaning
Diplomacy is derived from the French
and Greek word “diploma”
Diplo = “folded in two” and ma = “an
object”
Diplomacy is the principle means by
which states communicate with
each other state and non state actors. It
is the communication
system of the international society. It is
the use of tact in dealing
with the people. Diplomacy in world
politics refers to a
communication process between
international actors that seeks
through negotiation to resolve conflict
short of war. Whereas, in
foreign policy it refers to use as a policy
instrument possibly in
association with other instruments such
as economic or military
force enable an international actor or
any state to achieve its policy
objectives.3. Definition
“Diplomacy is the management of
international relations by
negotiation, the method by which these
relations are adjusted and
managed by ambassdors and envoys the
business or art of the
diplomats” - Oxford English
Dictionary.
“Diplomacy as the brain of the state
power” - Mogenthau
“The application of intelligence and tact
to the conduct of official
relations between governments of
independent states” - Sir Ernest
Satow (Guide to diplantic practice,
1922)
4. Nature
A. Diplomacy is not immoral
B. Diplomacy is a means of IR
It means of conducting relations
consists of technique and
procedures for conducting relations
among nations.
C. Diplomacy is machinery for action
It is recognized as official machinery
for the conduct of relations
among nation
D. Diplomacy acts through settled
procedures
Functions according to definite and
schedule or settled procedures
and protocols through a network of
foreign offices embassies,
legation consulates and special missions
all over the world.
E. Bilateral as well as multi-lateral in
form
F. Diplomacy is concerned with all
issues and problem
among nations .G. Diplomacy handles
all types of matters.
5. Scope
A. War
Diplomacy deals with national and
international security issues
and physical conflicts. It helps to
prevent terrorism, political
economic and reducing threat of war.
For this countries sign
various peace agreement and different
convenant arer signed
under international organizations.
B. Peace
C. Economy
Economic diplomacy helps to promote
trade and finance, tourism,
foreign employment and national
interest in WTO.
D. Social Issues
(culture,poverty,development and
hunger)
E. Environmental Issues
F. Human Rights
G. Humanitarian Interventions
H. International treaty are usually
negotiated by diplomats .

4.2 Objectives of Diplomacy

Meaning of Diplomacy
· Diplomacy is derived from the Greek word 'diploun' which means
to fold (folded document).
· It is a method to establish relations among the members of
international community through the basis of foreign policy.
· It is an instrument of executing foreign policy.
· foreign policy is what you do and Diplomacy is how you do it.
Harold Nicolson defines diplomacy as "a synonym of foreign policy,
negotiation, a method through which such negotiation is carried out
and a branch of foreign service."
Sisley Huddleson defines "Diplomacy is an art of lubricating the
wheels of international relations."
Quincy Wright defines "Diplomacy is the art of negotiation in order
to
advance the maximum of group objectives with minimum of costs."
Objectives of Diplomacy
Hans J. Morgenthau in his book Politics Among Nations has
mentioned that the fundamental objective of diplomacy is the
promotion of national interest by peaceful means. Though the
concept
of national interest has different ideas, the main objective of
diplomacy
is to attain the goal defined by foreign policy.
Kauttilya, a master diplomat of Ancient India, in his famous
treaties, Arthasastra, emphasizes four chief objectives of diplomacy
i.e.
acquisition, preservation, augmentation (increase size or value) and
proper distribution. He further says that the aim of diplomacy is the
attainment of siddhi and happiness through possession of power.
Likewise, Machiavelli, thinker of fifteen century, also determined
the objectives of diplomacy which is always directed towards the
protection and preservation of national interest i.e. security which
can
be achieved only through the acquisition of power.
Besides these, some scholars define the objectives of diplomacy in
terms of political, economical, cultural and ideological view. S.L. Roy,
in
his book, Diplomacy, has made this justification. According to him,
the
primary concern of diplomacy is the safeguarding of its political
independence and territorial integrity and the fundamental political
objective of diplomacy is to achieve its ends peacefully. He further
says
that political freedom alone wouldnot be sufficient unless
accompanied
by economic advancement. He has given equal importance on the
exchange of cultural ties to foster the relations with the other
countries.
He has also given equal importace on ideology in moulding
international politics.
Besides this, Gandhijee Roy, in his book Principles of Diplomacy,
has explained the objectives of diplomacy as:
(a) Political Objectives
(b) Non-Political Objectives or secondary Objectives
According to him, the political objective of the state is to extend its
influence upon the rest of the world through the extention of power.
But the small and developing powers have the aim to preserve their
sovereignty and identity. Likewise, it is the non-political objective of
the
diplomat to enhance economic strength through commercial
diplomacy.
Futher, the countries have other secondary objectives like the
continuation of diplomatic relations, organization of conferences,
meetings, oraganizing official visit, etc.
However, the overall objectives of diplomacy can be summarized
in the following points:
· To protect and promote national interest.
· To safeguard the national, political and economic integrity of the
state.
· To strengthen friendly relations and to neutralize hostile
friendship.
· To conduct war.
· To prevent the hostile alliances by keeping the enemy divided.
· To achieve economic and commercial objectives.
· To render food assistance.
· To fulfill permanent interest of the country.
· To develop the environment of mutual give and take.
· To establish goodwill.
· To enhance national prestige.
· To maintain international peace.
Conclusion
It is the fundamental obligation of every diplomat to protect and
promote one's national interest. So, he should always be serious and
active in the interaction with world community.

4.3 Historical development of

diplomacy
The ancient world
The view in late medieval Europe that the first diplomats were angels, or messengers from heaven to
earth, is perhaps fanciful, but some elements of diplomacy predate recorded history. Early societies
had some attributes of states, and the first international law arose from intertribal relations. Tribes
negotiated marriages and regulations on trade and hunting. Messengers and envoys were
accredited, sacred, and inviolable; they usually carried some emblem, such as a message stick, and
were received with elaborate ceremonies. Women often were used as envoys because of their
perceived mysterious sanctity and their use of “sexual wiles”; it is believed that women regularly
were entrusted with the vitally important task of negotiating peace in primitive cultures.

Information regarding the diplomacy of early peoples is based on sparse evidence. There are traces
of Egyptian diplomacy dating to the 14th century BCE, but none has been found in western Africa
before the 9th century CE. The inscriptions on the walls of abandoned Mayan cities indicate that
exchanges of envoys were frequent, though almost nothing is known of the substance or style of
Mayan and other pre-Columbian Central American diplomacy. In South America the dispatch of
envoys by the expanding Inca empire appears to have been a prelude to conquest rather than an
exercise in bargaining between sovereigns.

The greatest knowledge of early diplomacy comes from the Middle East, the Mediterranean, China,
and India. Records of treaties between Mesopotamian city-states date from about 2850 BCE.
Thereafter, Akkadian (Babylonian) became the first diplomatic language, serving as the international
tongue of the Middle East until it was replaced by Aramaic. A diplomatic correspondence from the
14th century BCE existed between the Egyptian court and a Hittite king on cuneiform tablets in
Akkadian—the language of neither. The oldest treaties of which full texts survive, from about 1280
BCE, were between Ramses II of Egypt and Hittite leaders. There is significant evidence of Assyrian
diplomacy in the 7th century and, chiefly in the Bible, of the relations of Jewish tribes with each
other and other peoples.

CHINA
The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date from the 1st millennium BCE. By the 8th
century BCE the Chinese had leagues, missions, and an organized system of polite discourse between
their many “warring states,” including resident envoys who served as hostages to the good
behaviour of those who sent them. The sophistication of this tradition, which emphasized the
practical virtues of ethical behaviour in relations between states (no doubt in reaction to actual
amorality), is well documented in the Chinese classics. Its essence is perhaps best captured by the
advice of Zhuangzi to “diplomats” at the beginning of the 3rd century BCE. He advised them that

This tradition of equal diplomatic dealings between contending states within China was ended by the
country’s unification under the Qin emperor in 221 BCE and the consolidation of unity under the Han
dynasty in 206 BCE. Under the Han and succeeding dynasties, China emerged as the largest, most
populous, technologically most-advanced, and best-governed society in the world. The arguments of
earlier Chinese philosophers, such as Mencius, prevailed; the best way for a state to exercise
influence abroad, they had said, was to develop a moral society worthy of emulation by admiring
foreigners and to wait confidently for them to come to China to learn.

Once each succeeding Chinese dynasty had consolidated its rule at home and established its borders
with the non-Chinese world, its foreign relations with the outside world were typically limited to the
defense of China’s borders against foreign attacks or incursions, the reception of emissaries from
neighbouring states seeking to ingratiate themselves and to trade with the Chinese state, and the
control of foreign merchants in specific ports designated for foreign trade. With rare exceptions
(e.g., official missions to study and collect Buddhist scriptures in India in the 5th and 7th centuries
and the famous voyages of discovery of the Ming admiral Zheng He in the early 15th century),
Chinese leaders and diplomats waited at home for foreigners to pay their respects rather than
venturing abroad themselves. This “tributary system” lasted until European colonialism
overwhelmed it and introduced to Asia the European concepts of sovereignty, suzerainty, spheres of
influence, and other diplomatic norms, traditions, and practices.

India
Ancient India was home to an equally sophisticated but very different diplomatic tradition. This
tradition was systematized and described in the Artha-shastra (one of the oldest books in secular
Sanskrit literature) by Kautilya, a clever and reputedly unscrupulous scholar-statesman who helped
the young Chandragupta to overthrow Macedonian rule in northern India and to establish the
Mauryan dynasty at the end of the 4th century BCE. The ruthlessly realistic state system codified in
the Artha-shastra insisted that foreign relations be determined by self-interest rather than by ethical
considerations. It graded state power with respect to five factors and emphasized espionage,
diplomatic maneuver, and contention by 12 categories of states within a complex geopolitical
matrix. It also posited four expedients of statecraft (conciliation, seduction, subversion, and
coercion) and six forms of state policy (peace, war, nonalignment, alliances, shows of force, and
double-dealing). To execute policies derived from these strategic geometries, ancient India fielded
three categories of diplomats (plenipotentiaries, envoys entrusted with a single issue or mission, and
royal messengers); a type of consular agent (similar to the Greek proxenos), who was charged with
managing commercial relations and transactions; and two kinds of spies (those charged with the
collection of intelligence and those entrusted with subversion and other forms of covert action).

Detailed rules regulated diplomatic immunities and privileges, the inauguration and termination of
diplomatic missions, and the selection and duties of envoys. Thus, Kautilya describes the “duties of
an envoy” as “sending information to his king, ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty,
upholding his king’s honour, acquiring allies, instigating dissension among the friends of his enemy,
conveying secret agents and troops [into enemy territory], suborning the kinsmen of the enemy to
his own king’s side, acquiring clandestinely gems and other valuable material for his own king,
ascertaining secret information and showing valour in liberating hostages [held by the enemy].” He
further stipulates that no envoys should ever be harmed, and, even if they deliver an “unpleasant”
message, they should not be detained.

The region within which this system operated was separated from its neighbours by deserts, seas,
and the Himalayas. India had very little political connection to the affairs of other regions of the
world until Alexander the Great conquered its northern regions in 326 BCE. The subsequent
establishment of the native Mauryan empire ushered in a new era in Indian diplomatic history that
was marked by efforts to extend both Indian religious doctrines (i.e., Buddhism) and political
influence beyond South Asia. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka was particularly active, receiving several
emissaries from the Macedonian-ruled kingdoms and dispatching numerous Brahman-led missions
of his own to West, Central, and Southeast Asia. Such contacts continued for centuries until the
ascendancy of the Rajput kingdoms (8th to 13th century CE) again isolated northern India from the
rest of the world. Outside the Chola dynasty and other Dravidian kingdoms of South India, which
continued diplomatic and cultural exchanges with Southeast Asia and China and preserved the text
and memories of the Artha-shastra, India’s distinctive mode of diplomatic reasoning and early
traditions were forgotten and replaced by those of its Muslim and British conquerors.

Greece
The tradition that ultimately inspired the birth of modern diplomacy in post-Renaissance Europe and
that led to the present world system of international relations began in ancient Greece. The earliest
evidence of Greek diplomacy can be found in its literature, notably in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
Otherwise, the first traces of interstate relations concern the Olympic Games of 776 BCE. In the 6th
century BCE the amphictyonic leagues maintained interstate assemblies with extraterritorial rights
and permanent secretariats. Sparta was actively forming alliances in the mid-6th century BCE, and by
500 BCE it had created the Peloponnesian League. In the 5th century BCE, Athens led the Delian
League during the Greco-Persian Wars.

Greek diplomacy took many forms. Heralds, references to whom can be found in prehistory, were
the first diplomats and were protected by the gods with an immunity that other envoys lacked. Their
protector was Hermes, the messenger of the gods, who became associated with all diplomacy. The
herald of Zeus, Hermes was noted for persuasiveness and eloquence but also for knavery, shiftiness,
and dishonesty, imparting to diplomacy a reputation that its practitioners still try to live down.

Because heralds were inviolable, they were the favoured channels of contact in wartime. They
preceded envoys to arrange for safe passage. Whereas heralds traveled alone, envoys journeyed in
small groups, to ensure each other’s loyalty. They usually were at least 50 years old and were
politically prominent figures. Because they were expected to sway foreign assemblies, envoys were
chosen for their oratorical skills. Although such missions were frequent, Greek diplomacy was
episodic rather than continuous. Unlike modern ambassadors, heralds and envoys were short-term
visitors in the city-states whose policies they sought to influence.

In marked contrast to diplomatic relations, commercial and other apolitical relations between city-
states were conducted on a continuous basis. Greek consular agents, or proxeni, were citizens of the
city in which they resided, not of the city-state that employed them. Like envoys, they had a
secondary task of gathering information, but their primary responsibility was trade. Although
proxeni initially represented one Greek city-state in another, eventually they became far-flung; in his
famed work History, Herodotus indicates that there were Greek consuls in Egypt in about 550 BCE.

The Greeks developed archives, a diplomatic vocabulary, principles of international conduct that
anticipated international law, and many other elements of modern diplomacy. Their envoys and
entourages enjoyed diplomatic immunity for their official correspondence and personal property.
Truces, neutrality, commercial conventions, conferences, treaties, and alliances were common. In
one 25-year period of the 4th century BCE, for example, there were eight Greco-Persian congresses,
where even the smallest states had the right to be heard.
Rome
Rome inherited what the Greeks devised and adapted it to the task of imperial administration. As
Rome expanded, it often negotiated with representatives of conquered areas, to which it granted
partial self-government by way of a treaty. Treaties were made with other states under Greek
international law. During the Roman Republic the Senate conducted foreign policy, though a
department for foreign affairs was established. Later, under the Empire, the emperor was the
ultimate decision maker in foreign affairs. Envoys were received with ceremony and magnificence,
and they and their aides were granted immunity.

Roman envoys were sent abroad with written instructions from their government. Sometimes a
messenger, or nuntius, was sent, usually to towns. For larger responsibilities a legatio (embassy) of
10 or 12 legati (ambassadors) was organized under a president. The legati, who were leading citizens
chosen for their skill at oratory, were inviolable. Rome also created sophisticated archives, which
were staffed by trained archivists. Paleographic techniques were developed to decipher and
authenticate ancient documents. Other archivists specialized in diplomatic precedents and
procedures, which became formalized. For centuries these archive-based activities were the major
preoccupation of diplomacy in and around the Roman Empire.

Roman law, which stressed the sanctity of contracts, became the basis of treaties. Late in the
Republican era, the laws applied by the Romans to foreigners and to foreign envoys were merged
with the Greek concept of natural law, an ideal code applying to all people, to create a “law of
nations.” The sanctity of treaties and the law of nations were absorbed by the Roman Catholic
Church and preserved in the centuries after the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and a foundation
was thus provided for the more-sophisticated doctrines of international law that began to emerge
along with the European nation-state a millennium later.

The Middle Ages

When the Western Empire disintegrated in the 5th century CE, most of its diplomatic traditions
disappeared. However, even as monarchs negotiated directly with nearby rulers or at a distance
through envoys from the 5th through the 9th century, the papacy continued to use legati. Both
forms of diplomacy intensified in the next three centuries. Moreover, the eastern half of the Roman
Empire continued for nearly 1,000 years as the Byzantine Empire. Its court at Constantinople, to
which the papacy sent envoys from the mid-5th century, had a department of foreign affairs and a
bureau to deal with foreign envoys. Aiming to awe and intimidate foreign envoys, Byzantium’s rulers
marked the arrival of diplomats with spectacular ceremonies calculated to suggest greater power
than the empire actually possessed.
Islam
Inspired by their religious faith, followers of Islam in Arabia conquered significant territory beginning
in the 7th century, first by taking Byzantium’s southern and North African provinces and then by
uniting Arabs, Persians, and ultimately Turks and other Central Asian peoples in centuries of
occasionally bloody conflict with the Christian Byzantines. The community of Islam aspired to a single
human society in which secular institutions such as the state would have no significant role. In such a
society there would be political interaction but no requirement for diplomatic missions between one
independent ruler and another. Theoretically, since non-Muslim states eventually would accept the
message of Islam, the need for diplomatic exchanges between them and the Islamic community also
would be purely temporary. In practice, however, diplomatic missions, both to other Muslim states
and to non-Muslim states, existed from the time of Muhammad, and early Islamic rulers and jurists
developed an elaborate set of protections and rules to facilitate the exchange of emissaries. As
Muslims came to dominate vast territories in Africa, Asia, and Europe, the experience of contention
with Byzantium shaped Islamic diplomatic tradition along Byzantine lines.

Byzantium
Byzantium produced the first professional diplomats. They were issued written instructions and were
enjoined to be polite, to entertain as lavishly as funds permitted, and to sell Byzantine wares to
lower their costs and encourage trade. From the 12th century their role as gatherers of information
about conditions in their host states became increasingly vital to the survival of the Byzantine state.
As its strength waned, timely intelligence from Byzantine diplomats enabled the emperors to play
foreign nations off against each other. Byzantium’s use of diplomats as licensed spies and its
employment of the information they gathered to devise skillful and subtle policies to compensate
for a lack of real power inspired neighbouring peoples (e.g., Arabs, Persians, and Turks) as well as
others farther away in Rome and the Italian city-states. After the Byzantine Empire’s collapse, major
elements of its diplomatic tradition lived on in the Ottoman Empire and in Renaissance Italy.

Diplomacy of the Roman Catholic Church

As Byzantium crumbled, the West revived. Indeed, even in its period of greatest weakness, the
Roman Catholic Church conducted an active diplomacy, especially at Constantinople and in its 13th-
century struggle against the Holy Roman emperors. Popes served as arbiters, and papal legates
served as peacemakers. The prestige of the church was such that, at every court, papal emissaries
took precedence over secular envoys, a tradition that continues in countries where Roman
Catholicism is the official religion. The Roman emphasis on the sanctity of legates became part of
canon law, and church lawyers developed increasingly elaborate rules governing the status,
privileges, and conduct of papal envoys, rules that were adapted later for secular use. Still later,
rules devised for late medieval church councils provided guidelines for modern international
conferences.
From the 6th century, both legates and (lesser-ranking) nuncii (messengers) carried letters of
credence to assure the rulers to whom they were accredited of the extent of their authority as
agents of the pope, a practice later adopted for lay envoys. A nuncius (English: nuncio) was a
messenger who represented and acted legally for the pope; nuncii could negotiate draft agreements
but could not commit the pope without referral. In time, the terms legate and nuncius came to be
used for the diplomatic representatives of secular rulers as well as the pope. By the 12th century the
secular use of nuncii as diplomatic agents was commonplace.

When diplomacy was confined to nearby states and meetings of rulers were easily arranged, a
visiting messenger such as the nuncius sufficed. However, as trade revived, negotiations at a
distance became increasingly common. Envoys no longer could refer the details of negotiations to
their masters on a timely basis. They therefore needed the discretionary authority to decide matters
on their own. To meet this need, in the 12th century the concept of a procurator with plena potens
(full powers) was revived from Roman civil law. This plenipotentiary could negotiate and conclude an
agreement, but, unlike a nuncius, he could not represent his principal ceremonially. As a result, one
emissary was often given both offices.

Venice
At the end of the 12th century, the term ambassador appeared, initially in Italy. Derived from the
medieval Latin ambactiare, meaning “to go on a mission,” the term was used to describe various
envoys, some of whom were not agents of sovereigns. Common in both Italy and France in the 13th
century, it first appeared in English in 1374 in Troilus and Criseyde by Geoffrey Chaucer. By the late
15th century, the envoys of secular rulers were commonly called ambassadors, though the papacy
continued to send legates and nuncii. Each ambassador carried a letter of credence, though he could
not commit his principal unless granted plenipotentiary authority.

The Crusades and the revival of trade increased Europe’s contact with the eastern Mediterranean
and West Asia. Venice’s location afforded that leading Italian city-state early ties with
Constantinople, from which it absorbed major elements of the Byzantine diplomatic system. On the
basis of Byzantine precedents, Venice gave its envoys written instructions, a practice otherwise
unknown in the West, and established a systematic archive. (The Venetian archives contain a registry
of all diplomatic documents from 883.) Venice later developed an extensive diplomacy on the
Byzantine model, which emphasized the reporting of conditions in the host country. Initially,
returning Venetian envoys presented their relazione (final report) orally, but, beginning in the 15th
century, such reports were presented in writing. Other Italian city-states, followed by France and
Spain, copied Venetian diplomatic methods and style.
 The Renaissance to 1815
The development of Italian diplomacy
It is unclear which Italian city-state had the first permanent envoy. In the late Middle Ages and early
Renaissance period, most embassies were temporary, lasting from three months to two years. As
early as the late 14th and early 15th centuries, however, Venice, Milan, and Mantua sent resident
envoys to each other, to the popes, and to the Holy Roman emperors. At this time, envoys generally
did not travel with their wives (who were assumed to be indiscreet), but their missions usually
employed cooks for purposes of hospitality and to avoid being poisoned. Resident embassies
became the norm in Italy in the late 15th century, and after 1500 the practice spread northward. A
permanent Milanese envoy to the French court of Louis XI arrived in 1463 and was later joined by a
Venetian representative. Ambassadors served a variety of roles, including reporting events to their
government and negotiating with their hosts. In addition, they absorbed the role of commercial
consuls, who were not then diplomatic agents.

Italy’s early economic revival, geographic location, and small size fostered the creation of a European
state system in microcosm. As the peninsula was fully organized into states, wars were frequent, and
the maintenance of an equilibrium (“balance of power”) necessitated constant diplomatic
interaction. Whereas meetings of rulers aroused expectations and were considered risky,
unobtrusive diplomacy by resident envoys was deemed safer and more effective. Thus, the system
of permanent agents took root, with members of the upper middle class or younger sons of great
families serving as envoys.

Rome became the centre of Italian diplomacy and of intrigue, information gathering, and spying.
Popes received ambassadors but did not send them. The papal court had the first organized
diplomatic corps: the popes addressed the envoys jointly, seated them as a group for ceremonies,
and established rules for their collective governance.

As resident missions became the norm, ceremonial and social occasions came to dominate the
relations between diplomats and their hosts, especially because the dignity of the sovereign being
represented was at stake. Papal envoys took precedence over those of temporal rulers. Beyond that
there was little agreement on the relative status of envoys, and there was frequent strife. Pope
Julius II established a list of precedence in 1504, but this did not solve the problem. Spain did not
accept inferiority to France; power fluctuated among the states; papal power declined; and the
Protestant revolt complicated matters—not least regarding the pope’s own position. By the 16th
century the title of ambassador was being used only for envoys of crowned heads and the republic
of Venice. Latin remained the international language of diplomacy.

The French invasion of 1494 confronted the Italian states with intervention by a power greater than
any within their own state system. They were driven to substitute subtle diplomacy and expedient, if
short-lived, compromise for the force they lacked. This tendency, plus their enthusiasm for
diplomatic nuances and the 16th-century writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, gave Italian diplomacy a
reputation for being devious. But it was no more so than that of other states, and Machiavelli,
himself a Florentine diplomat, argued that an envoy needed integrity, reliability, and honesty, along
with tact and skill in the use of occasional equivocation and selective abridgment of aspects of the
truth unfavourable to his cause—views seconded since by virtually every authority.

Diplomacy of the Roman Catholic Church

As Byzantium crumbled, the West revived. Indeed, even in its period of greatest weakness, the
Roman Catholic Church conducted an active diplomacy, especially at Constantinople and in its 13th-
century struggle against the Holy Roman emperors. Popes served as arbiters, and papal legates
served as peacemakers. The prestige of the church was such that, at every court, papal emissaries
took precedence over secular envoys, a tradition that continues in countries where Roman
Catholicism is the official religion. The Roman emphasis on the sanctity of legates became part of
canon law, and church lawyers developed increasingly elaborate rules governing the status,
privileges, and conduct of papal envoys, rules that were adapted later for secular use. Still later,
rules devised for late medieval church councils provided guidelines for modern international
conferences.

From the 6th century, both legates and (lesser-ranking) nuncii (messengers) carried letters of
credence to assure the rulers to whom they were accredited of the extent of their authority as
agents of the pope, a practice later adopted for lay envoys. A nuncius (English: nuncio) was a
messenger who represented and acted legally for the pope; nuncii could negotiate draft agreements
but could not commit the pope without referral. In time, the terms legate and nuncius came to be
used for the diplomatic representatives of secular rulers as well as the pope. By the 12th century the
secular use of nuncii as diplomatic agents was commonplace.

When diplomacy was confined to nearby states and meetings of rulers were easily arranged, a
visiting messenger such as the nuncius sufficed. However, as trade revived, negotiations at a
distance became increasingly common. Envoys no longer could refer the details of negotiations to
their masters on a timely basis. They therefore needed the discretionary authority to decide matters
on their own. To meet this need, in the 12th century the concept of a procurator with plena potens
(full powers) was revived from Roman civil law. This plenipotentiary could negotiate and conclude an
agreement, but, unlike a nuncius, he could not represent his principal ceremonially. As a result, one
emissary was often given both offices.

Venice
At the end of the 12th century, the term ambassador appeared, initially in Italy. Derived from the
medieval Latin ambactiare, meaning “to go on a mission,” the term was used to describe various
envoys, some of whom were not agents of sovereigns. Common in both Italy and France in the 13th
century, it first appeared in English in 1374 in Troilus and Criseyde by Geoffrey Chaucer. By the late
15th century, the envoys of secular rulers were commonly called ambassadors, though the papacy
continued to send legates and nuncii. Each ambassador carried a letter of credence, though he could
not commit his principal unless granted plenipotentiary authority.

The Crusades and the revival of trade increased Europe’s contact with the eastern Mediterranean
and West Asia. Venice’s location afforded that leading Italian city-state early ties with
Constantinople, from which it absorbed major elements of the Byzantine diplomatic system. On the
basis of Byzantine precedents, Venice gave its envoys written instructions, a practice otherwise
unknown in the West, and established a systematic archive. (The Venetian archives contain a registry
of all diplomatic documents from 883.) Venice later developed an extensive diplomacy on the
Byzantine model, which emphasized the reporting of conditions in the host country. Initially,
returning Venetian envoys presented their relazione (final report) orally, but, beginning in the 15th
century, such reports were presented in writing. Other Italian city-states, followed by France and
Spain, copied Venetian diplomatic methods and style.

The Renaissance to 1815

The development of Italian diplomacy
It is unclear which Italian city-state had the first permanent envoy. In the late Middle Ages and early
Renaissance period, most embassies were temporary, lasting from three months to two years. As
early as the late 14th and early 15th centuries, however, Venice, Milan, and Mantua sent resident
envoys to each other, to the popes, and to the Holy Roman emperors. At this time, envoys generally
did not travel with their wives (who were assumed to be indiscreet), but their missions usually
employed cooks for purposes of hospitality and to avoid being poisoned. Resident embassies
became the norm in Italy in the late 15th century, and after 1500 the practice spread northward. A
permanent Milanese envoy to the French court of Louis XI arrived in 1463 and was later joined by a
Venetian representative. Ambassadors served a variety of roles, including reporting events to their
government and negotiating with their hosts. In addition, they absorbed the role of commercial
consuls, who were not then diplomatic agents.

Italy’s early economic revival, geographic location, and small size fostered the creation of a European
state system in microcosm. As the peninsula was fully organized into states, wars were frequent, and
the maintenance of an equilibrium (“balance of power”) necessitated constant diplomatic
interaction. Whereas meetings of rulers aroused expectations and were considered risky,
unobtrusive diplomacy by resident envoys was deemed safer and more effective. Thus, the system
of permanent agents took root, with members of the upper middle 1class or younger sons of great
families serving as envoys.

1 Md Nazid prawez
Rome became the centre of Italian diplomacy and of intrigue, information gathering, and spying.
Popes received ambassadors but did not send them. The papal court had the first organized
diplomatic corps: the popes addressed the envoys jointly, seated them as a group for ceremonies,
and established rules for their collective governance.

As resident missions became the norm, ceremonial and social occasions came to dominate the
relations between diplomats and their hosts, especially because the dignity of the sovereign being
represented was at stake. Papal envoys took precedence over those of temporal rulers. Beyond that
there was little agreement on the relative status of envoys, and there was frequent strife. Pope
Julius II established a list of precedence in 1504, but this did not solve the problem. Spain did not
accept inferiority to France; power fluctuated among the states; papal power declined; and the
Protestant revolt complicated matters—not least regarding the pope’s own position. By the 16th
century the title of ambassador was being used only for envoys of crowned heads and the republic
of Venice. Latin remained the international language of diplomacy.

The French invasion of 1494 confronted the Italian states with intervention by a power greater than
any within their own state system. They were driven to substitute subtle diplomacy and expedient, if
short-lived, compromise for the force they lacked. This tendency, plus their enthusiasm for
diplomatic nuances and the 16th-century writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, gave Italian diplomacy a
reputation for being devious. But it was no more so than that of other states, and Machiavelli,
himself a Florentine diplomat, argued that an envoy needed integrity, reliability, and honesty, along
with tact and skill in the use of occasional equivocation and selective abridgment of aspects of the
truth unfavourable to his cause—views seconded since by virtually every authority.

ASSIGNMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND

DIPLOMACY

Types of diplomacy
INTRODUCTION:
Diplomacy comprises spoken or written speech acts by
representatives of states (such as leaders and diplomats) intended to influence
events in the international system. Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign
policy which represents the broader goals and strategies that guide a states
interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties, agreements,
alliances, and other manifestations of international relations are usually the
result of diplomatic negotiations and processes.
As diplomacy is a genre of social science, there is no formulaic basis for
categorizing diplomacy in a uniform way. However, practices of eastern and
western diplomacy exercised till now help us conclude that there are basically
two types of diplomacy;
1. Old diplomacy
 It originated from 16th century and continued up to 1919 (end of
first world war)
 This diplomacy was much practiced in Europe and so it was more
Euro centric in nature.
 States were the sole actors of diplomatic dealings.
 Bilateral relation between the states was the major concern of
diplomacy.
 Diplomacy was primarily concerned with political issues.
 Maintaining peace or status quo was the core concern of
diplomacy.

2. New diplomacy
 After the end of first world war, democratic governance became
the vital throughout the world. As a result, diplomacy also
changed its content and color in line with the democratic polity.
 Openness, multilateralism and internationalization became the
keynotes in diplomatic interactions.
 Growing significance of public opinion compelled the diplomats to
work in the line with feels and pulses of their citizens.
 Along with politics, socio-economic aspects are the crucial
agendas in the diplomatic affairs.

Sub types of Modern/New Diplomacy

1. Net Diplomacy
2. Economic Diplomacy
3. Political diplomacy
4. Military Diplomacy
 5. Cultural Diplomacy

1. Net diplomacy
Net diplomacy describes new method and modes
of conducting diplomacy with the help of the internet and
ICTs (information and communication technology).
Diplomacy conducted via: websites direct email, streaming
videos, electronic publication etc. it also known as e-
diplomacy cyber diplomacy , digital diplomacy and virtual
diplomacy. It is more focused on content rather than
hierarchy as protocol. In this type of diplomacy diplomats
can’t sign treaties or agreement. This type of diplomacy is
more transparent and accountable. It connotes between
government and people which brings peoples wills at
center. It is cheaper. The main bases of net diplomacy are
as follows;
 Information gathering
 Communication and negotiation
 Virtual embassies and conferences
 Rising of new diplomatic actors

2.Economic Diplomacy
Economic diplomacy is an act of using diplomatic skills with the
economic tools to advance a country’s economic, political and strategic goals.
Economic diplomacy includes building international coalitions to help countries
to recover from financial crisis. Economic diplomacy deals with the nexus
between power and wealth in international affairs. Economic diplomacy is a
process of mainstreaming economic dimension into foreign policy perspective
with the objective of further promotion of economic interests with
cooperation of the outside world through well-informed negotiation.
Hence , economic diplomacy is the overall diplomatic activities to promote and
protect economic national interests of the state in the foreign arena.
Some of the major scope of economic diplomacy are;
 Attracting foreign policy
 Promoting tourism
 Enhancing export
  Promoting comparative and competitive edge of national economy

Economic diplomacy operates at three levels:

a. Global level
b. Regional level
c. Bilateral level
3. Cultural Diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy may be described as a course of
actions, which are based on and utilize the exchange of ideas, values,
traditions, and other aspects of culture of identity, weather to
strengthen relationship, enhance socio-cultural cooperation, promote
national interests and beyond cultural diplomacy can be practiced by the
public sector, private sector ar civil society. It is critical to fostering peace
and stability throughout the world as in an increasingly globalized have
greater access to each other than before. The major principles of
cultural diplomacy are respect and recognition of cultural diversity and
heritage , global intercultural dialogue, justice equality and
interdependence, protection of international human rights and global
peace and stability.
Major activities related to cultural diplomacy are;
 Organizing cultural fair
 Establishing cultural center and information center
 Visit of various cultural troops
 Promoting and protecting cultural heritage

4. Political diplomacy
Bilateral and multilateral political issues are dealt
through political diplomacy that include high level political visits, regular
channel of diplomatic communication, state and goodwill visits and
many more.
Some of the major aspects of political diplomacy are;
 Garnering international support
 Advocating for international peace and security
 Enhancing bilateral and multilateral cooperation for multipurpose
 Furthering national interests

5. Military diplomacy
 Military diplomacy refers to the process of promoting
and protecting the military interests of the state in the foreign arena
through diplomatic manner. Moreover it is a vital means of maintaining
international peace and cooperation.
Some of the major activities related to military diplomacy are;
 Organizing international army games\sports
 Joint training for military personnel
 Disseminating information regarding military activities
 Exchanging military assistance
 High level military visits
These patterns of diplomatic dealings enhance bilateral and
multilateral relations by dispelling the misgivings amd mistrust
among the members of international community.
5.1. History of the Law of Diplomatic Intercourse:

The history of diplomacy is an old as human civilization. It was originated in the ancient
period and came into present day world through systematic evolution. The states used to
send their envoys in each other's state. Even in prehistoric period, the practice of diplomacy
could be found in real and matured form. However, the ancient form of diplomacy was
evolved along with the origin and evolution of state but since a longtime no any systematic
code could be made to regulate diplomatic practices.

 The Greek, Roman, Byzantine and renaissance Italy made the most notable
contribution in the evolution of diplomacy. The rulers or the kings used to send
their envoys and tried to maintain the relation including the signing of treaty,
conduction dialogue or conveying the message. The Romans started to appoint the
diplomats from the senate. This practice ultimately established the trend to settle
permanent diplomatic mission and institutional development of diplomacy
initiated in the world. The ancient Indian Civilization has equal contribution in its
origin and development.

 But the origin of systematic and organized diplomacy dates back to the Congress
of Vienna- 1815. The Congress of Vienna, the Regalement of 19 March, 1815 and
the subsequent regulation of Aix-la- Chapelle 1818 ultimately established the
diplomatic service and representation of the powers on and agreed basis. The
Congress also developed the norms and immunities of the diplomats along with
their classification. The Conventions on Diplomatic Relations and the Convention
on Consular Officers adopted by the American Nations at Havana (Cuba) in 1928
brought some more legal backgrounds regarding diplomatic relations. All these
attempts because the prelude to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relation-
1961 which made comprehensive agreement relating to almost all aspect of
diplomatic practices. Hence, the major legal efforts which have contributed in the
development of diplomatic intercourse are given below:

a) Treaty of Westphalia-1648

Westphalia Treaty had significant importance in the development of international

relations. Through it had not made notable contribution in the development of
diplomacy. The notion and practice of sovereignty arose from that time established
profession and a generally accepted method of international intercourse. The rise of
nationalism and nation- state system made some such machinery essential, especially
after the peace Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 which had crystallized and formalized
the state system. Diplomats from all European countries, as well as noblemen and
other countries from all parts of France, graced the court of Louis XIV, and gave it that
pomp and splendor which dazzled his contemporaries and set a pattern for decades to
come (Palmer and Perkins,2015:92).
b) The Congress of Vienna-1815

It was the Congress of Vienna in 19 March,1815 that the old or traditional

diplomacy obtained its greatest success. In the Congress, representatives of
five great powers i.e Austria, Britain, France, Prussia, Russia after a long and
painstaking but fruitful negotiation, managed to settle their differences. The
congress brought the following achievements
I. Diplomatic services of the nations had been recognized as a distinct
branch of public service.
II. Diplomatic hierarchy was established.
III. The diplomats were started to be behave as dignified person.

The Aix-la- Chapella of 21st November 1818, as the subsequent protocol of

Vienna congress established diplomatic hierarchy of four ranks i.e. i.
Ambassadors Papal Legates and Papal nuncios. ii. envoys extra-ordinary and
ministers plenipotentiary, iii. minister resident and iv. charges d' affaires
(Palmer and Perkins, 2015:93)

c) Havana Convention on Diplomatic Officer-1928

The Vienna Congress was followed by Havana Convention on Diplomatic

Officer and Convention on Consular officer by American nations at Havana
(Cuba) on 1928. This convention brought some more legal background
regarding diplomatic relation.

d) Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations- 1961

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relation-1961 became the first major

international effort to regulate the wide field of diplomatic relations and
immunities. It was signed on 18 April, 1964. In the beginning, it was ratified by
22 state and the number now has reached to 191. It consists of 53 articles
including a preamble. The Detail of the Convention is given to Appendix 'A'.

e) Vienna Convention on Consular Relation- 1963

It is an international treaty that defines a framework for consular relations
between independent states. This convention was adopted on 24 April,1963. It
has been ratified by 179 countries. Nepal also got engage in the treaty on 28
September, 1965. It consists of 79 articles with a preamble.

Conclusion
The above mention treaties have significant role in the development of
diplomatic intercourse. In spite of all these, diplomacy is still conducted largely
on the basis of intricate code that has evolved over many centuries. The
unwritten rules are equally important in the regulation of diplomatic activities.

Functions and Jurisdictions of the Diplomatic Agents

17.07.2022

Introduction:
Diplomacy is a critical element in the current scenario of
International Relations. With French origin, the term diplomacy can
be described as an art of representing the state. It is an applied
form of foreign policy and the practicality of foreign policy. Another
way that diplomacy is described is “the art of telling lies on the
behalf of the nation or state”. Overall, it can be said that it is a
promotion of national interest with other countries in a peaceful
and civilized manner.
The Congress of Vienna of 1815 is the first organization to codify
customary rules of International law on the ranks of diplomatic
representatives. The commission prepared draft articles and
submitted them to General Assembly and then it was adopted
through a conference in 1961.
Functions:
Article 3(1) of the Vienna Convention of Diplomatic Relations, 1961
mentions the functions of diplomatic agents. They are discussed
below:
➔ Representing the sending State in the receiving state;
➔ Protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending
State and its nationals, within the limits permitted by international
law;
➔ Negotiating with the Government of the receiving State;
➔ Ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and
developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the
Government of the sending State;
➔ Promoting friendly relations between the sending State and
the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural, and
scientific relations.
The functions of a diplomatic agent can be further simplified below:
Representation
Diplomatic agents are representatives of the state. They are
responsible for the representation of the policies and beliefs of the
state by which they are dispatched through the state they are
accredited.
Protection
Protection is another critical function of diplomatic agents. They
have to protect the rights and interests of the sending state and
also of the nationals within the limits allowed by the municipal law
of the respective state.
Negotiation
Negotiating is the most critical function of a diplomatic agent.
Generally, the head of the diplomatic mission negotiates on various
aspects on the behalf of the sending state with the state to which
they are accredited to maintain a friendly relationship. They are
required to communicate the outcome of the negotiation to the
sending state frequently.
Observation
Diplomatic agents are also required to observe several events and
happenings which take place to analyze the impact that they may
have on the state. After making such observations of the events,
they are required to make periodical reports to the government
sending state.
Promotion of Friendly Relations
Diplomats are required to promote friendly relations between the
sending state and the receiving state. They also have the function
to develop the social, cultural, and economic relations between the
two states.
Jurisdiction:
 Despite the privileges and diplomatic immunity, the Vienna
Convention of Diplomatic Relations 1961 has the following
jurisdiction for the diplomats:
➔ The diplomatic agents must respect the laws and regulations
of the receiving state.
➔ Diplomatic agents cannot interfere in the internal affairs of
the host country (Article 41).
➔ They are not allowed to use the premises other than the
official activities (Article 41).
➔ Diplomatic agents shall not practice any activity in the host
country for their benefit (Article 42).
➔ Diplomatic agents shall have immunity from the local
jurisdiction of the receiving state, i.e immunity from criminal
jurisdiction and also immunity from its civil and administrative
jurisdiction except done exceptional cases (Article 31).
Conclusion
Hence, diplomacy can be summed up as the management of
International Relations through negotiation. The above-mentioned
points and excerpts from the Vienna Convention of Diplomatic
Relations can be taken as a basis to understand the functions and
jurisdiction of diplomatic agents.

5.4 Privileges and Immunities of Diplomatic Agents

Diplomats are those who dwell abroad on behalf of the nation from which they have been
deployed. They serve as a conduit between the nation that sends them and the organization
that accredits them. As a result, they engage in diplomacy, which is defined in international
law as the process by which States create or maintain mutual ties and carry out legal or
political transactions in accordance with their foreign policies.
A diplomatic act may be carried out by the head of state, the government, the minister of
foreign affairs, or by diplomatic personnel.

Law on diplomatic agents:

States have been sending and receiving diplomatic agents since the dawn of time. 'Doots'
were once sent from one Rajya to another. They were neither permanently transferred to
another Rajya nor was the practice standard in ancient times. Beginning in the seventeenth
century, diplomatic representatives were sent on a permanent basis.
By the second part of the seventeenth century, permanent legation had become a common
institution, and diplomats were given certain rights and obligations that were nearly identical
in character.
The customary principles of international law governing the ranks of diplomatic
representatives were first codified at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Once 1815, the
institution of diplomacy continued to grow, and the International Law Commission was
tasked with codifying the laws governing diplomatic agents after the United Nations was
founded.
The draft article was created by the Commission and presented to the General Assembly. The
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was established by the Assembly after it called a
conference in 1961.

Diplomatic immunities and privileges:

Diplomats are protected by diplomatic immunity under international law from receiving
states using their legal authority. Among the oldest and most well-known international law
norms are those governing diplomatic immunities and privileges.

Basis of diplomatic immunity and privileges:

Regarding the justification for granting immunity to diplomatic agents, some international
jurists have contrasting opinions. Three significant theories that resulted from their
perspectives are as follows:
 Extra-territorial Theory: The fictitious theory is another name for the
extraterritorial notion. This idea holds that diplomatic agents always fall within the
sending State's territorial jurisdiction rather than that of the State to which they are
accredited. When a diplomat acts extraterritorially, it means that even if they are
physically on the territory of the nation to which they are accredited, they are still
considered to be on that territory for all intents and purposes.
 Representational Theory: In this theory, diplomats are viewed as the sovereign of
the sending State's personal representative. As a result, they enjoy the same level of
privileges and rights as the leader of the sending State.
 Functional Theory: According to this theory, due of the nature of their jobs,
diplomats are granted immunity. The tasks that diplomats must complete are not
simple. In other words, they carry out their jobs in a routine or unique manner. To
efficiently carry out the assignments given to them, they are given exemptions from
the state's legal and other restrictions.

Privileges and immunities of a Diplomat:

The 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations outlines the many privileges and
rights accorded to diplomatic agents. These are what they are:

A. Inviolability of Diplomatic Agents: Diplomatic agents are inviolable, according to a

norm that was accepted in international law long before the Convention of 1961 was
 adopted. According to Article 29 of the Vienna Convention, "a diplomatic agent's
person should be inviolable." He is exempt from all forms of arrest and detention, and
the receiving State must treat him with the utmost respect and take all necessary
precautions to protect his personal freedom and dignity.
 By virtue of Article 29, the receiving State's government has a responsibility to refrain
from any behavior that might be harmful to diplomatic agents and to stop any
attempts at such behavior if they were made.

This does not imply that the diplomats' immunity is unqualified. In extraordinary
circumstances, the receiving State may be able to imprison or arrest the diplomatic agent. For
example, if a diplomat commits a violent act that disturbs the order and quiet of the receiving
State to the point where it is necessary to confine him in order to prevent such incidents, or if
a diplomat is found intoxicated and in public with a loaded gun.

B. Inviolability of staff of mission:

According to article 1 of the Vienna Convention, the mission staff is also granted immunity
in addition to the head of mission. According to paragraph 2 of Article 37 of the Vienna
Convention, administrative and technical staff personnel who are not citizens or lawful
permanent residents of the receiving State are still entitled to the advantages and immunities
listed in Articles 29 to 35.

Administrative and technical staffs are thus only entitled to personal inviolability (Article
29), inviolability of residence (Article 30(1)), immunity from criminal jurisdiction (Article
31(1)), exemption from some taxes and duties (Article 34), and immunity from civil and
administrative jurisdiction [Article 31(1)] when carrying out their official duties.

The service employees are granted immunity under Vienna Convention Article 37, Paragraph
3, even if they are not citizens or legal residents of the receiving State. It grants immunity for
actions taken in the course of performing their duties, exempts them from taxes and duties on
remuneration received, and exempts them from social security requirements.

C. Inviolability of Family members:

"Immunities and privileges to the family members of the diplomatic agents having diplomatic
ranks may be given, if first they are not nationals or permanent residents of the receiving
State and second, so long as they form the part of household, i.e., they live under one roof,"
the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations' Article 37 Paragraph 1 states.

Therefore, as he is not a member of the family, the son of a diplomat will not be granted any
protection if he is enrolled in any university in the receiving State and just visits his parents
on the weekends.

 Inviolability of premise: The Vienna Convention states in Article 21 that "a

permanent diplomatic mission needs premises to operate and the receiving State
should assist the sending State in obtaining the premises form mission." The sending
State may fly its flag and use its insignia there (Article 20). The premises of the
mission shall be inviolable, according to Article 22 of the Vienna Convention of
 Diplomatic Relations, which lays down the customary rule of international law.
Additionally, Article 30 states that "a diplomatic agent's private residence will also
enjoy inviolability." Without the head of mission's permission, agents, police, or any
other officers of the receiving State are not permitted on the property. The
inviolability of the premises is not absolute, though; in some cases, it may be
jeopardized. According to Article 41 of the Convention, "premises of the mission
should not in any way be exploited as incompatible with the purposes of the mission
or by principles of general international law." Therefore, if the inviolability of the
premises is violated, the receiving State should not accept it passively and can take
any necessary action to put an end to the conduct of agents.

 Inviolability from being a witness: In any State court to which they are accredited,
whether civil, criminal, or administrative, diplomatic agents are totally protected from
being called as a witness. Additionally, he is not required to testify in front of the
Commissioner. However, they can waive their immunity and appear in any court.
According to Article 31(2), "a diplomatic agent is not required to offer testimony as a
witness."

 Immunity from taxes and customs duties: Diplomatic agents are immune from all
national, local, and regional dues and taxes, according to Article 34 of the Vienna
Convention. This right was initially granted to the agents prior to the convention out
of courtesy, but the convention has included it with a more specific definition.

 Immunity from inspection of Personal Baggage: A diplomatic bag is the container

used by diplomatic representatives to send items, messages, or papers to foreign
missions or the sending state. The Vienna Convention's Article 27, paragraph 3 states
that "diplomatic bags should not be opened or detained." But this right is not
unqualified, as stated in Article 36 Paragraph 2. The provision that states that "general
practice of exempting the diplomats' personal baggage from a custom inspection is
qualified by the provision that inspection can be conducted in presence of a
diplomatic agent or his agent if there are serious grounds to suspect that the article is
not for official use" is stated in the document.

 Freedom of Communication: Diplomatic agents are free to share any information

with the State by which they are accredited for official purposes. "The freedom of
communication also entails the employment of code messages and couriers," the
Vienna Convention's Article 27 states.

 Freedom of movement and travel: Diplomatic agents are allowed to move and
travel on the territory of the receiving State within the terms of Article 26 of the
Vienna Convention, subject to international law and the norms established by the
receiving State regarding the security zone.

 Right to worship: Diplomatic agents have the freedom to practice any religion they
choose inside the walls of the mission or their apartment under Article 3(1) of the
Vienna Convention. However, they have no authority to preach their religion in the
receiving State and are not permitted to encourage any citizens of the receiving State
to participate in the worship.
  Immunity from the Local Jurisdiction: Agents of foreign governments are exempt
from the jurisdiction of domestic courts. The immunity covers both civil and criminal
jurisdiction.

A diplomatic agent is exempt from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State, according
to Article 31, Paragraph 1 of the Vienna Convention. Therefore, the receiving State lacks the
authority to charge and penalize diplomatic personnel. The idea of international law that
states that diplomatic agents are immune from civil and administrative jurisdiction is also
widely accepted.

Conclusion:
Due to the normal nature of their jobs and their status as the head of State's representative,
diplomats are granted immunity to carry out their duties. All of the privileges and protections
accorded to diplomats are not absolute; they are subject to compromise under specific
conditions. The institution of diplomatic representatives has evolved into the main tool used
to conduct relations between States at this time.

Name: Riya Khanal

BALLB Second Semester
Roll no: 22
International Relations and Diplomacy

5.5 Termination of Diplomatic Mission

A Diplomatic mission or the functions of a diplomatic agent may be terminated permanently
or temporary by various means and for various reasons. According to the Vianna Convention
on Diplomatic Relation, 1961 the diplomatic mission is terminated by the following
condition:

 The establishment of a diplomatic mission or the termination of a diplomatic agent

takes place through mutual consent.

 The receiving state can notify the sending state that functions of diplomatic agent
has come to an end and is refused to recognize the agent as a member of diplomatic
mission.

 The Sending state can notify the receiving state that function of the diplomatic agent
has come to an end, when the receiving state can no longer guarantee their safety or
have unavoidable circumstance.

 The receiving stare can terminate the diplomatic agent on the basis of persona non
grata also. For eg: UAE terminates North Korea diplomatic mission and ends visas.
The termination of a diplomatic agent or the head of the mission takes place under Article 9
and Article 43 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961.

Article 9
Classes of heads of consular posts

1. Heads of consular posts are divided into four classes, namely

 Consuls-general
 Consuls
 Vice-consuls
 Consular Agents

2. Paragraph 1 of this article in no way restricts the right of any of the Contracting.
Parties
to fix the designation of consular officers other than the heads of consular posts.

The Head of the mission takes place under Article 43

Immunity from jurisdiction

1.Consular officers and consular employees shall not be amenable to the jurisdiction of the
judicial or administrative authorities of the receiving State in respect of acts performed in
the exercise of consular functions.

2.The provisions of paragraph 1 of this article shall not, however, apply in respect of a civil
action either:

(a) arising out of a contract concluded by a consular officer or a consular employee in which
he did not contract expressly or impliedly as an agent of the sending State; or

(b) by a third party for damage arising from an accident in the receiving State caused by a
vehicle, vessel and aircraft.
 6.2 Diplomacy : Art of Negotiation,who Negotiates ?
New players in the old game

Diplomacy is the art of creating and managing relationships

among nations and the art of negotiation is that of forging
relationships through agreements. As such, diplomacy
offers valuable tools for all business negotiators, who
themselves are in the business of creating and managing
relationships among companies – whether they view this as
diplomacy or even as their overall goal or not.

Freeman cites Napoleon Bonaparte, who said diplomacy “is

the police in grand costume;” Ambrose Bierce, says it is “the
patriotic art of lying for one’s country;” Lester B. Pearson,
that it “is letting someone else have your way;” Ludwig
Boerne, that it “is to speak French, to speak nothing, and to
speak falsehood;” and last but not least former Chinese
Premier Chou En‐lai, that “all diplomacy is continuation of
war by other means.”

Irrespective of the variations in several aspects and tone,

these and other definitions carry a common theme.
Diplomacy occurs for a purpose. Freeman has also cited10
Cardinal Richelieu indicating that diplomacy is “not at
incidental or opportunistic arrangements, but at creating
solid and durable relations”; Charles de Martens and Harold
Nicolson respectively saying that it is “the science or art of
negotiation” and “the management of the relations between
independent states by process of negotiation”; Ernest
Satow, quoting Edmund Burke, who sees it as a “skill or
address in the conduct of international intercourse and
negotiations”; and Sisley Huddleston who states that it is
“the art of lubricating the wheels of international
relations.”

(*) Negotiation
Variable but related definitions have also been offered for
negotiation. Again, Freeman, Jr.,13 provides extensive
definitional work on the subject and its associated aspects.
Amongst the most perplexing in his reservoir is the attitude
ascribed to Soviet negotiators on the concept of
‘negotiability.’ This is the extreme approach that: “What’s
mine is mine, what’s yours is negotiable.”14 This is not
uncommon as part of today’s diplomatic negotiation
strategy. But, obviously, if tenaciously opposed negotiators
showed up at the negotiation table both wielding this model,
the certainty will be a stalemate and status quo. Such an
attitude connotes arbitrary unwillingness to make
compromises. In highly antagonistic disputes between
unforgiving rivals, persistent inflexibility in negotiation is
unhelpful. In cases of open hostility, it could lead to further
escalation. Experience shows that resort to open
confrontation and violence is a means favorable to those
well equipped in the art of warfare and aggression. Some
analysts have noted that at times a carrot and stick
(threats and incentives) approach15 is also usually applied
by the powerful to induce agreement.

New Dimensions in Diplomacy

Meaning of diplomacy

 Method of adjusting and implementing foreign policy.

 It is the principle means by which states communicate
with each other.
 Art of forwarding National interest
 Quality and skill of managing and adjusting international
relations
 A bargaining game aiming at achieving maximum and
giving minimum
 Act and practice of conducting negotiations and
maintaining relations between nations, skill in handling
affairs without hostility.

New Diplomacy
 The era of new Diplomacy ushered in early 20th century
and specially after the first world war.
 When international conditions changed considerably
and democratic government replaced monarchies.
 The trend of new diplomacy is almost entirely different
from the features of old diplomacy.
  New diplomacy connotes the twin ideas of replacing the
bilateral alliances of the past with a universal or semi-
universal association of states pledged to compliance
with a set of general principles embodied in
international law, and the abandonment of "power
politics" - that is, the use of force to settle conflicts
between nations.

Issues addressed by new diplomacy

 Human rights (Apartheid in South Africa

 Humanitarian intervention (Kosovo, Rwanda, Sierra
Leon)
 Labor rights (Workers conditions in developing
countries)
 National environmental issues (forestry and biodiversity)
 Transboundary environmental issues (transboundary
acid rain and air and water pollution)

Bright prospects of future diplomacy can be listed below:

 Diplomacy will be the mostly trusted means to manage
the increasingly complex interdependence of the
members of global family.
 Potentiality is there to make diplomacy a distinct
discipline of university.
  Professionalism in diplomacy shall broaden the scope of
diplomacy as a specific field of study and practice.
 d. New types and sub-types of diplomacy may appear as
per the demand of time. e.g. space diplomacy, social
network diplomacy.
 e. Structure, process and agenda of diplomacy may got
newer paradigm:
 Structure: Multi-actors will emerge as the doers of
diplomacy.
 Process: Discrete openness, multilateralism, and bona
fide alliance will be used for diplomatic dealings.
 Agenda: Economics, human rights and democracy will
be the hard core of diplomacy.

Despite the silver lines given above, future diplomacy will

have to face the multi-challenges due to growing nexus
among the issues and actors along with their intensified
interactions. These challenges can be as follows:
 Invention of mass annihilating type of equipment that

can wipe out the human race within the flick of the
finger.
 More diplomatic interactions among the actors of

international community may invite more complexity and

complications in their relations because nearness brings
sensitivity in relations.
 Emerging powers may struggle for playing the prestigious

role in the chess board of global politics.

 Terrorism in its new forms and manifestations may pose

great threat to humanity.

  Scientific advancement may not only bring prosperity
but also add vulnerability in the relations among the
members of international community.

Conclusion
Palmer and Perkins envision that future diplomacy may
lead us to the bright destination if its doers move ‘seeing
the horizon ahead and soil below’. Moreover, diplomacy
may remain as the central mechanism to further national
interest and to manage the international affairs ranging
from kitchen to crisis.

Emerging Challenges Of Diplomacy

Diplomacy is a basic means by which a nation seeks to secure the goals of its
national interest. Sometimes it is described as “the art of telling lies on behalf
of the nation”. Diplomacy is one of the essential means of any state in this 21 st
century. Diplomacy comprises spoken or written speech acts by
representatives of states (such as leaders and diplomats) intended to influence
events in the international system. Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign
policy which represents the broader goals and strategies that guide a state's
interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties, agreements,
alliances, and other manifestations of international relations are usually the
result of diplomatic negotiations and processes. Diplomats may also help to
shape a state by advising government officials.

According to Prof. Harold Nicholson, ”Diplomacy is the management of

international relations by means of negotiations; the method by which these
relations are adjusted and managed by ambassadors and envoys the business
or art of the diplomats.”
American Realist Hans J.Morgenthau states, “Diplomacy is the promotion of
the national interest by peaceful means.”
Diplomacy, through words, and above all deeds, plays an essential part in
protecting and developing that acquis and, most importantly, in taking forward
concrete initiatives that aim at tackling common challenges that require joint
and global action. To do so, it must balance reality and perception, be firm on
universal values and principles, and uphold the rules and norms that shape the
international system.

1)The Importance Of Reality And Perception

As foreign policy is not conducted in a vacuum, it must not ignore the
importance of context. A well-intentioned action may be perceived by others
as something different. There lies one of the main tasks of a diplomat:
understanding first and then explaining, thereby reducing the gap between
reality and perception; a difficult task by any standard. One that was certainly
made more challenging by the evolving nature of the international system.

When analysing today’s world, one must not forget that while globalization has
done much to reduce distances and increase connectivity, differences,
sometimes substantial, still remain. Not only in political culture, but also in
economic models and social norms. The temptation that may exist to use one
single lens to analyse different realities is, therefore, short-sighted. To be
aware of this complexity can be both alluring, as it challenges us to learn more
about the other, and daunting.

One of the main challenges we face in today’s world is, therefore, to know the
other; to listen, observe and understand—not necessarily to agree, but to be
able to comprehend. Narrowing the gap between reality and perception,
making sure the latter is as close as possible to the former, is, therefore,
essential for all international actors, so that they are fully understood, correctly
analysed and properly assessed. To achieve this, a joint effort is required. The
observer needs to fight off its potential pre-conceived ideas or bias. The
observed party needs to be aware that those might still exist. World history is
full of examples that illustrate the complexity of this exercise. Moreover,
today’s international stage is a powerful reminder of how difficult this task is.

2) The Centrality Of Values And Principles

There is, however, a common ground that allows all to share a joint
perspective and where the risk of misperception can be greatly reduced: the
values and principles we share. Since at least 1945, the notion that there are
universal principles common to all of humanity has been deeply integrated into
the international system. These do not imply a notion of superiority, but rather
of union. They do not aim to impose, but rather to share. And, they are not a
power tool, but rather a tool for empowerment. The fact that these values and
principles are widely shared should, therefore, be seen as a conquest and a
victory, as it represents a common ground on which we can build. A discourse
based on these values does not need to be seen as a lecture, as different views
on how to achieve some of them do not need to be taken as deviations from
its importance. As the current international set of shared values and principles
demonstrates, there is always room for debate and improvement. Some of
those that are taken for granted today were the result of strong debates some
decades ago.

With this evolution, there came great responsibility. What may be viewed by
some as interference may be thought of by others as a direct consequence of
transparency, information and joint accountability to values and principles
enshrined in international documents signed by all. What others may think of
as a tool to diminish certain feats and conquests should be taken up by others
as an opportunity to showcase the implementation of a commitment to
development in all of its dimensions.

3) The Relevance Of Rules And Norms

All of this is made possible because ours is a rules-based international order.

International law, the end of secret pacts or treaties, the ability to jointly
define norms and patterns through dialogue, cooperation and an open
exchange of views are some of the world’s most important achievements.
Though sometimes discarded by some as a sign of weakness and viewed by
others as a tool to be used only when that is deemed useful, the notion that
the world has a set of rules and norms that is shared by all and that can be
jointly shaped, defined and, therefore, understood is a development that
cannot be underestimated. The United Nations plays a central role in this
common and shared architecture. An organization where all countries are
equal, despite of their size, economic weight or geographic location; an
organization where all issues—big or small—are jointly discussed and
analysed; an organization that shapes our daily lives. Whether
telecommunications, global health or trade, the United Nations has, through
its various specialized agencies, created a more unified and connected world.
Unity and connection equal stability, and stability means predictability, for
states, but also for businesses and individual citizens.

All of this has made globalization possible. It enabled trade to flourish, barriers
to be taken down and knowledge to be shared. It brought countries and
peoples closer. Its benefits in terms of economic development, poverty
alleviation or technological advancements are beyond anything the world that
had ever seen before. And, all of this was made possible because there were
common rules and a shared desire to develop others when and where needed.
The World Trade Organization is a perfect example of this. Its creation
represented a fundamental stepping stone for the current rules-based
international order. And, the current debate on its reform signifies that there is
joint understanding that this track record needs to be kept and updated to fit
into today’s world.

4) Global Challenges

The current rules-based international order—where debate is possible and

encouraged, norms are openly discussed and updated when necessary and
international law is the glue that binds countries together—has been
instrumental to the world’s development and will be equally central when
addressing the many challenges humanity is facing.

Climate change is the most evident and pressing of these. As there is only one
planet and no “Plan B”, there can be no other approach to deal with the effects
of climate change other than a cooperative and multilateral one. With the Paris
Agreement at the core and a common understanding of what needs to be
done, namely achieving carbon neutrality, the world must invest in new and
green technologies, phase out old and polluting ones, and thereby reap the
social and economic benefits that will undoubtedly arise from a green
transition. In an age where countries are faced with the erosion of their coast
lines, the desertification of their land or a loss of biodiversity that threatens
agriculture and biological balance, climate change is a challenge that summons
us all. It is, therefore, one where nationalism plays no part, as the gains of the
one will be the gains of all, and the loss of the few will be felt throughout the
globe.
Building a post-pandemic world will, therefore, require that all these lessons
are correctly understood and incorporated into the way countries speak and
act on the international stage.