Tank Design and Operations

Prepared by: DSc Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

Sarajevo 2024
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Tank Design
3. Tank Construction
4. Tank Operations
5. Tank Maintenance

2
1. INTRODUCTION

3
Storage and treating facilities are major
elements of an oil terminal.

It is both practical and economical to keep oil

wells flowing at a fairly constant rate, whereas
it is not normally possible to maintain the
same output rate at the point of sale/export.

A large percentage of sales is on a batch basis

(i.e. by marine tanker), hence the need for
storage facilities in an oil terminal.
4
Wellstream fluids invariably require some form
of treatment to bring them within specification
as a marketable product.

Although some treatment does take place in

the field, further processing and final
conditioning of the sales products are done in
the terminal, hence the need for treating
facilities.

With the exception of specialized wash tanks,

all storage and treating functions are carried
5
out in cylindrical steel tanks.
2. TANK DESIGN

6
2.1 Tank Types
2.2 Major Design Criteria

7
2.1 Tank Types
Tanks are usually described according to:

 Their function, or

 Their construction.

8
Their function
 Receiving,
 Settling,
 Treating,
 Dehydrating,
 Washing,
 Desalinating,
 Storing, or
 Exporting.
9
The construction is limited to two main
categories:

Fixed-roof tanks.

Floating-roof tanks.

10
Fixed-roof tanks
As the name implies, fixed-roof tanks are tanks
which have their cylindrical shell covered by a
roof that is an integral part of the tank
construction.

The roof plates rest on a supporting framework

and are attached to the tank only at the top of
the shell.
11
 12
Fixed-roof Tank
There are three types:
Non-pressure tanks which are in open
connection with the atmosphere by
vents installed in the roof,

Low-pressure tanks where instead of

vents, pressure valves have been
installed which open at pressures of 20
mbar over and 6 mbar under atmospheric
pressure, and
High-pressure tanks equipped with
pressure valves which open at design
13
pressures of 50 mbar over and 6 mbar
under atmospheric pressure.
Advantages of Fixed Roof Tanks

Relatively easy to construct, and

Cheaper to build than floating-roof tanks.

Because of their closed construction, they are:

Stiff, and
Less sensitive to uneven soil settlements.
14
Disadvantage of a fixed-roof tank

Product losses due to the escape of vapour

through vent openings in the roof.

These losses are:

Breathing losses, caused by the
difference in day and night
temperature.

Filling losses, when inflowing oil expels

an equal volume of vapour through the 15
vents.
 16
Breathing Losses of a Fixed-roof Tank
Floating-roof tanks
A floating roof-tank is open at the top.
The roof itself is:
A steel disc which floats on the surface of
the oil, and
Rises or falls with the oil level as the tank
is filled or emptied.

17
For a floating-roof tank, construction tolerances
are rather small due to the fact that the roof must
be free to move over most of the height of the
tank.

For this reason the permitted ovality is limited by

the necessary clearance between the roof and the
shell and this narrow tolerance increases the
construction costs considerably.
18
The higher construction cost of a floating-roof
tank is outweighed by the advantages, which are:

Reduced product loss due to minimized

vapour loss.

Reduced air pollution for the same reason.

Reduced fire and explosion risk due to very

small vapour space.
19
2.2 Major Design Criteria
The major objective in tank design is the
provision of the best possible storage capacity
at the lowest possible cost.

To achieve this objective, several factors must

be considered, such as:

Capacity,
Class of product,
Soil conditions, and
20
Weather conditions.
Capacity
The major factor for determining the main
dimensions of a tank is, of course, the amount
of liquid it needs to hold.

Standard vertical cylindrical tanks can be:

As small as 7 m3, having a diameter of 3

meters and a height of 1 meter, and

As big as 105,000 m3, with a diameter of 78

21
meters and a height of 22 meters.
British Standard BS 2654 indicates a list of
standard diameters, which are followed by all
UK tank manufacturers and also often followed
by continental manufacturers.

22
Class of product
The tank type that will be selected for storing a
particular product or range of products is
generally based on its vapour saving efficiency.

23
Soil conditions
Tank terminals are often located at:
Sea coasts, and
Rivers.
The soil at these locations is:
Seldom rock, or
Other hard material.

When tanks are placed at locations where

weak compressible layers are present in the
soil under the tanks, soil settlements will 24
be
experienced.
Weak compressible layers may be of:
 Clay,
 Silt,
 Peat, etc
The load of the tank and its contents will press
the water out of these layers and reduce their
thickness, so that soil settlement occurs.

This process is called:

Consolidation 25
Tanks are seldom installed on a piled foundation,
as this is:
Very costly, and
Technically not attractive.

The normal practice is that tanks are installed on

a:
1. Sand tank pad,
2. With a height of approximately 75 cm, and
3. Covered with a sand-bitumen top layer.
26
The function of such a pad is to:

Distribute the combined weight of the

tank and its contents evenly over the
subsoil, and
Prevent differential settlements caused by
local differences in the soil layers.

27
In most cases it proves to be economical to
build a tank as high as possible.

This approach applies especially to floating-

roof tanks.

The height of a tank may be limited, however,

by the allowable soil pressure at the location.

28
In some areas extensive precautions are
necessary to ensure that the foundation
material does not corrode the tanks, this
applies particularly in the Middle East where
the terrain on the coast can be salt-saturated
sand.

Cathodic protection systems are incorporated

into the tank farm designs, and these systems
must work continuously from the outset of
operations if they are to be effective in avoiding
tank bottom corrosion. 29
Weather conditions
Weather conditions, mainly wind-forces, have their
influence on tank design.

The stability of the tank when empty must be

sufficient to withstand the maximum wind gusts
that may occur in the area.

30
Stability should be against:
Overturning, also
Roof uplift caused by the combined effect
of:
Internal vapour pressure against the
roof, and
Lift forces.

31
The shell should also have stability against
buckling.

Most tanks of the standard range have been

calculated to be stable in winds of up to 160 km
per hour.

32
In the case of floating roof tanks, rain can be a
problem in some areas.

Even in desert regions it is essential to ensure

that rain drains are included in the design and
that they are maintained operational.

If not, immediate steps should be taken to rig

up suction or siphoning system to relieve the
load on the floating roof should rain occur.
33
 3. TANK
CONSTRUCTION

34
3.1 Tank Bottoms
3.2 Tank Shells
3.3 Tank Roofs
3.4 Internal Floating Covers
3.5 Rim Seal
3.6 Tank Pads
3.7 Bund Walls
3.8 Corrosion Protection
3.9 Fire-fighting Facilities 35
Tanks consist of three major components:
Bottom,
Shell, and
Roof.
To make a tank function, several more
components are required, such as:
Vents,
Roof seals, and
Roof drains.
36
Despite the fact that they are not part of the
tank itself, other important items in the
construction are:

 Tank pads, and

 Bund walls.

37
3.1 Tank Bottoms
Tank bottoms are made from:

 6 mm rectangular plates,
 Lap-welded on top only.

Bottom Lap Weld 38

For small tanks, with a diameter up to 12.5 m,
the rectangular plates are also placed under
the tank shell.

Tanks with bigger diameters are provided

with butt welded annular plates, 10 to 13 mm
thick.

Bottom Layout

39
The bottom plates transfer the vertical pressure
from the stored liquid directly onto the tank
foundation.

Therefore, liquid tightness and not strength is

the most important point for the tank bottom,
except for the bottom annular plates.

40
The bottom annular plates, placed under and
fixed to the tank shell are highly stressed by the
horizontal liquid pressure acting on the lowest
part of the tank shell.

The shell is attached to the bottom by two fillet

welds.

Bottom-to-shell
Connection

41
3.2 Tank Shells
The tank shell is the most important part of the
tank, because it must withstand the liquid
hydrostatic pressure.

The tank shell is made up of a number of

courses usually of the same height, whose
plate thicknesses gradually increase
downwards.

42
Each course:

Has a width of:

1.5 to 2 m for small tanks, and
2 to 2.5 m for large ones
(12.5 m diameter and above).

Is made up of a number of equal plates

with lengths of approximately 7.5 m for
small tanks and 10 m for large ones.

43
Tank shells are made by butt welding the
rectangular plates together.

The vertical welds of the shell are generally hand-

welded.

The horizontal welds of the shell are done

automatically.

The distance between vertical joints in adjacent

courses is one third of the shell plate length.
44
Hydrostatic pressure, caused by the column of
liquid in the tank is highest near the bottom, so
the lowest annular plates of the shell are
subject to the highest stresses and are
therefore thickest.

The thickness
of the tank
shell decreases
stepwise
upwards.
45
Locations of Vertical
Shell Seams
Shell plate thickness
The shell plate thickness is calculated in
accordance with the formula:
4.9 × D × (H – 0.3)
t =
SxE
Where:
t = minimum course thickness in mm.
S = maximum allowable stress in N/mm2
E = joint efficiency factor for welding (0.85–1)
D = nominal diameter of tank in m.
H = height from top of shell to the lower edge46
of the course under consideration, in m.
The plate's thicknesses are calculated on the
assumption that the tank will be filled with
water, since all tanks are hydrostatically tested
after construction.

This allows the tank to be filled with any type of

oil, independent of its specific gravity which will
always be less than one.

47
Minimum thicknesses for shell plates.
 For tanks with a diameter up to 30 m the
minimum thickness is 6 mm.
 For diameters between 30 and 60 m it is 8
mm and

 For over 60 m, the minimum thickness is

10 mm.
The allowable stress (S) is taken as 2/3 of the
minimum guaranteed yield stress of the steel
48
used.
Windstiffeners
Tank shell is designed to withstand the
hydrostatic pressure of the liquid stored in the
tank.

This is water during the testing of the tank and

usually oil during its service life.

The hydrostatic pressure causes high tensile

stresses in the tank shell.
49
As the material of the shell plates has been
selected to allow such stresses, the plates will
be very thin when compared with the diameter
of the tank.

When the tank is empty or partly empty, the

shell plates above the liquid level will not be
stressed in tension any more.

This part of the shell may have to withstand

compressive loads caused by the wind or, with
certain types of fixed-roof tanks, by internal
50
vacuum.
When these compressive loads exceed a
certain critical value, the tank shell and in
particular the thinnest, upper courses may
buckle.

Although the buckling will not cause leakage it

is still a serious situation, as the tank must be
taken out of service for repair and
improvement.

51
The stability of a tank shell can be improved
without increasing the plate thickness, by the
addition of one or more rings to the outside of
the tank (windstiffeners).

These windstiffeners will reduce the buckling

height of the tank shell.

52
Windgirders
The wind forces acting on the tank shell have
to be transmitted to the foundation.

In the case of fixed-roof tanks, the roof

structure which is fixed to the top of the shell,
helps to transmit the load.

Tanks with floating roofs do not of course have

this roof structure, and a wind girder is
therefore provided at the top of the shell along
the whole circumference. 53
The windgirders are usually installed one meter
below the top, in order to be used as a
walkway.

Windgirders
on a Tank Shell

54
Manholes and nozzle connections
Manholes and nozzle connections for inlets,
outlets, product drains, etc. are installed in the
lowest shell course.

Shell Nozzle
Connections

55
3.3 Tank Roofs
Tanks are divided into two main categories:
fixed-roofs and floating-roofs.

Fixed-roofs are attached to the shell and form

an integral part of the tank construction.

Floating-roofs float on the liquid in the tank and

move with the liquid level up and down inside
the shell.
56
Within these two main categories several types
are distinguished:

In fixed-roof design there are two types:

- Dome roofs and
- Cone roofs are both are both foxed roofs,
named after their shape.

In floating-roof design there are also two types:

- Pontoon-type roofs and
- Double-deck roofs

A construction that is a combination of the two

57
is the fixed-roof tank with internal floating
Fixed roofs

The roof plates are 5 mm thick and are lap-

welded on the top side only

They are placed with the lower edge of the

upper plate underneath the upper edge of the
lower plate, in order to avoid the risk of
condensed moisture becoming trapped in the
lap joints on the underside of the roof

58
The roof plates are not fixed to the roof-
supporting structure, but are only welded with
a very light weld to the top curb-angle of the
shell with a seal weld

This is done to enable the roof plates to blow

away in the case
of an explosion in
the tank, so that
no damage is
done to the tank
shell and the oil
59
stays in the tank
Manholes, nozzle connections for gauging and
dipping, and vents or pressure/vacuum valves
are placed on the roof

For safety reasons a railing should be installed

around the periphery of the roof

60
Venting of fixed-root tanks

Even when a fixed-roof tank is filled to its

maximum capacity, there is still a considerable
space between the liquid level and the roof,
which is filled with vapour
To avoid an excessive pressure increase or
reduction in the tank during operation, vent
openings are installed in the roof so that the
interior of the tank is in open contact with the
external atmosphere and vapours can escape
or air can enter 61
This (product losses) will occur due to:

 Temperature variations or
 During filling of the tank

Product losses may be either

 Breathing losses or
 Filling losses
Breathing losses are continuous over time, but
the amount of filling losses depends on the
number of times a tank is filled or emptied per
year
62
When no preventative measures are taken,
breathing losses will be high when:

 Differences between day and night

temperatures are great, for instance in the
Middle East

 The stored product is volatile

63
To reduce vapour losses:

 Baffles are installed in vent openings

which keep the interior of the tank in
contact with the atmosphere

 Pressure/vacuum relief valves are applied

(as an alternative)

64
Air baffles

Oil vapours are heavier than air and

consequently, they will tend to settle in the
lower part of the vapour space with the clean
air floating above them

The oil vapours and the air slowly diffuse and

will mix if agitated

65
When clean air is drawn in during in-breathing
of the tank (or during emptying) it is normally
directed downward into the oil vapour and the
air and vapour will start to mix

The resulting mixture will be lost during out-

breathing (or filling)

66
The air baffle is installed in non-pressure tanks

It has been designed to deflect the incoming air

horizontally above the heavier oil vapour

This 'stratification' will

reduce the mixing and
consequently the mixture
expelled during the next
out-breathing or filling
operation will have a
lower oil vapour
67
concentration
Pressure/vacuum valves

These valves will not open before a certain

overpressure or vacuum inside the tank is
exceeded

Pressure/vacuum valves are applied in two

low/high settings:
 Fully open at an overpressure of 20 mbar
or a vacuum of 6 mbar (called low-
pressure tanks)
 Fully open at an overpressure of 56 mbar
or a vacuum of 6 mbar (called high- 68
pressure tanks)
Floating roofs

The evaporation losses inherent with fixed-roof

tanks can be almost entirely eliminated by the
use of floating roofs

Floating roofs are designed to float on oil with

specific gravities that vary from 0.7 to 1.0

They rise or fall with the oil level

69
In the design of a floating-roof two loading
possibilities have been considered:

 Oil leakage of the roof

 Rainwater accumulation on the roof

It should be noted that floating roofs are not

designed for a combination of leakage and
rainwater accumulation
This means that the operator must avoid
rainwater accumulation if the roof has any
leaking pontoons
70
Pontoon roofs

In most cases the pontoon-type roof is used

The centre deck, made up of 5 mm thick lap-

welded plates, is welded to the inner side of the
annular pontoon, which provides the buoyancy

71
The surface of the pontoon is 20-25% of the
total roof surface

The pontoon is built of compartments which are

separated from each other by liquid tight
bulkheads

This ensures that a leakage in one of the

compartments will be limited to that particular
compartment
72
For large diameter tanks, e.g. over 50 meters,
special types of floating-roofs are sometimes
used

In the Shell Group a number of SIPM-type

floating-roofs are in service

73
This is a pontoon-type floating roof, the centre
deck of which is reinforced on the upper side
by sturdy radial stiffeners (usually 60 cm wide
by 80 cm high)

The roof is erected with a downward slope to

the centre

This SIPM roof was developed to avoid fatigue

cracks in the centre decks of the floating roofs
74
Another special floating roof is the buoy-type
roof
A number of buoys are welded on top of the
centre deck to increase the buoyancy in case
of a leak in the centre deck

75
Double-deck roofs

In a number of cases double-deck roofs (double-deck

over the whole liquid surface) are used instead of
pontoon roofs

For this type of roof the lower deck rests on the liquid
and some distance above this, the upper deck rests on
the lower deck, supported by bulkheads and
supporting, concentric rings

76
The air spaces between the two decks provide
an effective insulation against solar radiation

The upper deck has a slight incline towards the

centre of the roof

77
Apart from the advantage of the insulating effect
mentioned above, there are a number of occasions
when a double deck roof instead of a pontoon roof may
be chosen:

 For small diameter tanks, up to 15 meters,

because with these small diameters the centre
deck of a pontoon roof would be too small to
produce the diaphragm effect

 For large and very large diameter tanks, over 60

meters, located in areas with very strong winds.
Strong winds may cause fatigue cracks in the
single, centre decks of large pontoon roofs, 78
resulting in oil seepage onto the centre deck
Floating roof construction details

Roof seals
The up and down movement of a floating roof
must be smooth and therefore a rim seal is
installed between the tank shell and the outside
of the floating roof

This rim seal can move inwards and outwards

approximately 100 to 150 mm to compensate
for possible non-circularity of the tank shell
79
Two types of rim seals exist:

 Metallic seals and

 Foam filled fabric seals

80
Fabric seals are sometimes preferred because
of their safety properties:

 They do not cause sparks at the tank

shell when excessive oil movement
occurs in the tank

Their disadvantage is that:

 They have a smaller inward and outward

movement than metallic seals
 They also require more frequent repair
and replacement when the tank shell is 81
noncircular
Roof drains
Drainage of rainwater is important for the
trouble-free operation of a floating- roof tank

Any rain falling on the roof is collected in a

sump at the lowest point of the roof

It is discharged via an articulated steel drain

pipe (sometimes through a flexible hose drain)
installed between the sump and a nozzle in the
lowest course of the shell
82
83
A check valve is installed near the roof end of
the pipe to prevent back-flow of stored product
in case of leakage of the pipe drain or its swing
joints

A gate valve, just outside the tank shell,

permits the drainage system to be closed off

However, considerable care should be taken to

ensure the roof drainage system is not
inadvertently left closed
84
Pontoon-type roofs are designed to carry 250
mm of rain on the centre deck in a floating
condition

This accumulation
of rainwater could
arise for example
when the roof
drain is plugged

85
Emergency drains, discharging into the oil
storage cannot be applied, since the level of
the oil will always be higher than the level of
the rainwater on the centre deck

86
This means that the operator in charge
has to be particularly alert during
periods of heavy rain to ensure the water
is drained, thus preventing the floating
roof from collapsing or even sinking
when the rainwater load on the centre
deck reaches the design average of 250
mm rainfall

87
Double-deck roofs are provided with
emergency drains to limit the rainwater load to
a value which will be carried safely

This is possible because the oil level in the

tank will always be lower than the rainwater
level on the deck

The rainwater will

be discharged into
the product when it
reaches the overflow
level of the 88
emergency drains
Floating suctions
Storage tanks in production areas often act as
settling tanks, and as a result, crude with a
high water content,

Free water and Sludge

are likely to be present in the bottom layers

In general, floating-roof tanks are emptied via

an outlet approximately 30 cm above the
bottom of the tank 89
Crude that is drawn through such an outlet
from the tank could therefore be severely
contaminated

In a floating-roof tank this is prevented, or at

least significantly reduced, by the use of a
floating suction

90
This is a movable pipe that connects the outlet
nozzle of the shell with a guide structure
underneath the centre deck of the floating roof

The guide structure

at the underside
of the roof ensures
the horizontal
movement of the
upper end of the
pipe when the
floating roof is
moved up and
91
down
To eliminate the need for a guide structure, the
floating suction pipe may be articulated and
connected to the roof as an articulated roof
drain

92
Roof access ladders
For inspection and maintenance purposes an
access ladder is provided from the top of the
shell to the roof, running over a rail track on
the roof

Often these ladders

are provided with
self-leveling stair
treads, which are
always in a horizontal
position 93
Roof supports
The floating roof is provided with roof
supports, which can be adjusted to two
positions:

 The first position is approximately 0.9 m

above the tank bottom to keep the roof
free from all accessories on the tank
bottom

 The second position is approximately 1.8

m above the tank bottom for access 94
under the roof during maintenance
95
Automatic bleeder vents

They vent air from under the floating roof when

the tank is being filled initially

The vent closes automatically when the roof

floats off its supports

When the tank is being emptied, the vent opens

automatically just before the roof lands on its
supports, eliminating the possibility of a
vacuum under the roof 96
The automatic bleeder vent has high and low
positions similar to the roof supports

The vent must be adjusted to correspond with

the position of the roof support to prevent
vacuum damage to the roof when it lands on
the supports

97
Internal Floating Covers (IFC)

Is a simplified floating roof, except that it is of

course not designed for bearing loads due to
rain or snow

It combines:

 The excellent weather protection of the

fixed-roof tank and

 The ability to reduce vapour losses of the

98
floating-roof tank
Most of the IFC's are installed in existing fixed-
roof tanks of small or medium diameters (max.
30m)

99
The decision to install an IFC may be required
by environmental authorities in order to reduce
air pollution

Factors that have to be taken into account

when deciding to install an IFC include

 Expected product savings,

 Suitability of the tank,
 Operational conditions,
 Safety and
 Installation costs 100
Tank Pads

The main function of a tank foundation or pad is to

spread the load of the tank and its contents

 This will reduce the bearing pressures on the

subsoil, so that it remains within the limited
settlement range which the tank structure is able
to withstand

 The tank bottom is also kept free from ground

water and surface water

For these reasons the tank pad height is never 101

less
than 50cm
The tank pad consists of compacted granular material

The outer part of the pad is called the shoulder which

is an integral part of the pad

It supports the tank wall and confines the tank pad

body

102
The pad shoulder should be wide enough and properly
compacted under the annular bottom plate, under the
shell and near the tank

Shoulder surfacing is generally a flexible type of

cladding that can adjust to settlement of the foundation
and deformation of the tank bottom

103
Bund Walls

Individual tanks or groups of tanks are

surrounded by bund walls

Their function is to contain oil spillage from

any tank or associated pipework and so
minimize subsequent damage

104
The height of a bund wall, as measured from
the outside ground level should be sufficient to
afford protection to personnel when engaged in
firefighting

The wall is located so that reasonably close

approach can be made to a tank fire to allow
use of mobile fire-fighting equipment

105
Generally bund walls are constructed from
compacted granulated material covered with a
5-10 cm layer of bitumen, cement or
bitumen/sand mixture (dependent on the
product in the tank)

Bund wall tops are 0.75 m wide, with a

maximum downward gradient of 1:1.5

106
Two or more tanks may be bounded by one
wall

The total capacity of the tanks in one bounded

area is restricted to the following maximum
figures:

 Floating-roof tanks 120,000 m3

 Fixed-roof tanks 60,000 m3
 Crude oil tanks not more than two tanks
of maximum 60,000 m3 each
107
To ensure there is not a build-up of liquids,
such as rain water, each bund wall is fitted with
drains

These drains must be regularly inspected to

ensure they are free from any foreign matter
which would affect their ability to function

108
Corrosion Protection
Introduction
Corrosion is a destructive attack on metals

It may be Chemical or Electrical in nature

Examples of chemical corrosion are metals in

contact with strong acids or bases

However most of the phenomena involving

corrosion of metals are electrochemical in
109
nature
Three factors are necessary for this
phenomenon to occur:

 Two electrodes

 An electrolyte such as salt water

 A connection between the two

electrodes to complete the circuit
110
Corrosion is most obvious in the case of
electrically coupled dissimilar metals such as
zinc and copper, submerged in water

Zinc forms the anode and copper the cathode

of a galvanic cell

The reaction proceeds in two parts, the anodic

reaction and the cathodic reaction

111
In the anodic reaction, the metal dissolves in the
electrolyte in the form of positively charged ions:

M M+ + e

In the cathodic reaction, the positively charged

hydrogen ions precipitate as atomic hydrogen on
the cathodic surface:

H+ + e H (atomic)

112
The electrons released by the anodic reaction
flow through the metallic circuit to the cathode,
where they neutralize an exactly equivalent
number of hydrogen ions

The positive metal ions released near the

surface of the anode combine with negative
hydroxide ions from the electrolyte to form a
neutral metal hydroxide:

M+ + OH– MOH 113

In a single metal, such as steel of which the
tank (and its bottom) is made, the same
process occurs under similar conditions

Even though the entire bottom is made of one

material, parts of it may be covered with

 More mill scale than others, or

 More rust may be present at one location
than at the other
114
But also concentration differences in the
electrolyte or gases dissolved in the adjacent
liquid phase will have the same effect

These factors change the character of the

metal in such a way that various parts of the
tank bottom will differ in potential and so
constitute the electrodes

At the anodic locations corrosion, usually

taking the shape of pitting will occur
115
Protective measures

Under favorable conditions the electrochemical

reaction will stifle itself at:

 The cathode,
 The anode or
 Both

116
The hydrogen film will eventually cover the
cathodic surface, stopping the flow of
electrons

The neutral metal hydroxide frequently coats

the surface of the anode with the same effect

Gaseous oxygen, dissolved in water, reacts

however with the protective atomic hydrogen
coating the cathodic areas and destroys the
film by depolarization

117
This secondary reaction causes the corrosion
to continue
Some degree of corrosion protection can be
obtained by coating the underside of the tank
bottom with:

 A plasticized coal tar or

 Asphalt paint

This will prevent:

 Direct water damage,

 Rust, and
 Retard corrosion on a great portion of118
the
tank bottom
Effectiveness of the coating depends on the:

 Quality,
 Extent of coverage and
 Bond of coating to the steel

Corrosion will take place where there is no

protective coating

Since such a coating is impossible to obtain,

supplemental protection is required
119
The most widely used method of supplementing the
coating to prevent corrosion at the voids is known as
cathodic protection, and is accomplished by:

 Stopping the flow of electrical current from

the tank to and through the soil or electrolyte
on which it rests
 Causing current to flow from external sources
through the soil or electrolyte to the tank

The effect is to transfer corrosion from the tank

bottom, where it causes damage, to a ground bed of
sacrificial anodes where the loss of material can be
justified 120
a typical installation which consists of
rectifiers and graphite ground beds

Alternating electric current is sent from an

electric distribution system to the rectifiers

Here it is converted
into direct current
that flows from the
positive side of the
rectifier to the
ground bed 121
The current goes through the soil and is
collected at all points on the tank which are in
contact with the soil

The current returns

through the tank line
to the negative side
of the rectifier to
complete the circuit
122
Fire-fighting Facilities

Terminal fire-fighting equipment usually

consists of

1. A ring water main maintained at a

pressure of about 10 bars

This main supplies water monitors for

cooling the sides of tanks adjacent to any
that may be on fire
123
2. In addition, some terminals have
centralized foam storage with lines up to
each tank roof,

3. Together with adequate inert gas

extinguishing bottles actuated by
nitrogen and hot bulb on the pontoons of
the floating roofs

124
4 TANK OPERATIONS

125
Watertesting a Tank

Immediately after construction has been

completed and before the tank is taken into
service, it is filled completely with water

This is done for settlement of the tank

foundation and to test the tank for its structural
integrity

126
When executing the water test, the following
points should be observed:

1. Apart from the pipeline that is used for filling

the tank with water, no pipelines should be
connected to the tank

2. For filling the tank with water, the

recommendations indicated in the soil
mechanical report shall be followed

Soil settlement measurements during the

127
testing shall be made and reported regularly
3. Overfilling of the tank should be avoided

For fixed-roof tanks the pressure of the

water on the underside of the roof plates will
cause a load on the roof trusses, which is
considerably increased because of the slope
angle of the roof

128
4. When emptying the tank from test water, it
could be decided to do this "on gravity", i.e.
based on the static head of the water content

In the previous chapter it was already

explained that shell and roof plates are
extremely thin when compared with the
diameter of the tank

129
For this reason excessive discharge rates are
undesirable and could cause vacuum
overloading of the tank shell and roof,
resulting in serious buckling

Venting capacities of tanks are partly designed

on the pumping-out rates during operation

Should for any reason this capacity be

increased, opening the roof manholes is a
possibility
130
5. Rippling of tank bottoms is experienced at
locations where:

 Serious soil settlement occurs and

 Tank bottom is erected with an upward
cone

131
As the cone will settle at the centre
approximately 30 % more than at the periphery,
the general condition is that the tank bottom is
flat after the water test and cone-down during
operation

It is possible that a ripple is formed in the tank

bottom during the water test due to the over
length in the bottom plates

It will be formed along the weakest line of the

tank bottom, which generally is a long 132
longitudinal lapweld
Effects of Soil Settlement

During the water test the subsoil under the tank

will consolidate under the combined loading of
the tank and its contents

One of the consequences of soil settlement and

its undesirable effects was already mentioned
in item (4) above

This process of compaction will continue

however during the service life of the tank 133
Particular attention should be paid to leaks
close to the periphery of the tank and
immediate action should be taken for repair

Settlement can be

 Evenly distributed over the tank pad

(slow process and can be noticed)

 Uneven settlement (during which

compaction takes place very locally, can
go unnoticed for a long time) 134
Even soil settlement
When every location at the tank shell has the
same amount of settlement, it is called even
settlement

It may require adjustment of the pipes

connected to the tank

During even settlement the centre of the tank

bottom will settle approximately 30- 40 % more
than at the periphery

The consequence can be an excessive cone-

135
down condition
This will cause:

 Considerable tensile stress in the

bottom-to-shell connection, resulting in
possible buckling of this connection

 This cone-down may bring the bottom in

contact with ground water and cause
corrosion of the bottom plates

 Tilting of the tank may occur

136
Uneven soil settlement
Local, uneven, settlement under the tank shell
is more risky than the even settlement

The flat thin bottom of the tank will follow the

soil settlements easily, however, the tank shell,
being a rigid structure in the vertical direction,
cannot follow that movement so easily

This may cause a condition that the tank

bottom starts hanging at the bottom-to-shell
connection, which may cause a rupture of this
137
connection when the tank is filled with liquid
Improper design or construction of the tank
pad may also cause uneven settlement

During service, the tank shell may penetrate

into the top layer of the tank pad

A kind of gutter is formed at the bottom-to-shell

connection of the tank. Rain water streaming
down from the tank shell will accumulate in this
gutter and serious corrosion may occur at this
location
138
Buckling of Tank Shells

Has been described under item

“STIFFENERS”

139
Windforces
Windforces are included in the design
conditions of tanks and stiffener rings and
windgirders may have been installed to
improve the stability of the tank shell against
such forces

For a floating-roof tank the maximum loading

case for buckling is the combined loading of
the wind pressure on the outside of the shell
and the wind suction inside the tank above the
roof 140
For a fixed-roof tank, the maximum loading
case for buckling of the shell is the combined
loading of:

 Wind pressure on the outside of the shell

(atmospheric condition) and

 Internal vacuum inside the tank

(operational condition)
The internal vacuum will be caused when:
- Liquid is pumped out of the tank or -
Condensation is caused by a
temperature drop in the vapour space 141
of
the tank
Venting problems of fixed-roof tanks

The total venting capacity should be checked

when:

a. The pumping-in or pumping-out rate is

changed

b. The height of the tank is increased

c. The tank is converted from a non-heated

tank into a heated tank 142
Pumping-in or pumping-out rates are
sometimes increased during the lifetime of a
tank

The discharge (pumping-out) rate reaches high

values when the operator discharges the tank
on gravity, particularly when the tank is nearly
full

143
The static head of the liquid in the tank is high
and the discharge rate reaches a peak value

This effect can be greater when the tank is

standing at a higher level than the surrounding
area (e.g. on a hill)

Therefore, before allowing this procedure, the

venting capacity of the tank must be checked

144
Due to incorrect operation, water may enter a
tank storing a hot product at temperatures over
100 °C

The water will change into steam with a major

increase in volume

The sudden increase in pressure in the vapour

space could rupture the relatively weak roof-to-
shell connection and blow off the roof plating

The steam and oil will form a kind of foam and

due to the enormous increase in volume; the
145
mixture starts to boil over the top of the shell,
hence the name "boil-over"
Venting capacities may also become
insufficient when due to:
 Environmental causes,
 Inadequate maintenance,
 Operative errors or
 Vent openings get clogged

This happens when:

a. Standard wire netting in the openings of
vents or relief valves is replaced by fine-
mesh wire netting
b. Vent openings are covered 146
A wire netting is installed in the opening of
vents and relief valves to prevent birds nesting

This netting should have openings of at least 6

mm

Fine-mesh wire netting, intended to act as a

flame arrester, should never be installed to
replace this netting, because the flow capacity
of the vents or valves could be considerably
reduced by dust and may even be reduced to
nil when rain, moisture on the wire netting147
would become frozen
A similar condition occurs when vent openings
are for some reason covered with plastic sheets
or bags, this happened when:

 Painters, working on the roof, attempted

to prevent the vapour coming out of the
vent (by placed a plastic bag over the
vent)
 During a test of the fire brigade, water was
sprayed over the fixed roof of a tank and
the operators had covered the roof vent
with a plastic sheet to prevent water 148
entering the tank
Operation of Floating-roof Tanks

Operating instructions apply in particular to

floating-roof tanks as each floating roof is a
moving structure and requires attention in
order to maintain efficiency and prevent
accidents

Taking floating-roof Tanks into Service

After the construction and watertesting of the

tank, the roof will be standing with the roof
149
supports in their high (maintenance) position
 Before taking the roof into service:

 The settings of valves and drains should

be checked

 The valve of the roof drain at the shell

must be fully open

 Check that the roof drain and drain holes

in the centre sump are not choked by dirt
or other matter

 The drain plug in the centre of the roof 150

must be closed
 Over the first 2 - 3 m filling should be done
at a low rate and the behaviour of the roof
should be carefully observed
Turbulence of the inflowing liquid is thus
avoided and damage to the roof or roof drain
prevented

 In floating tans, roof supports and automatic

bleeder vents must be set into their low
(service) position.
Operators should however not go on the
roof until it is safe to do so, i.e. until the roof is
151
steady
 Side-entry mixers, if fitted, must not be
tested before the roof is at least a few
meters above the impellers of the mixers

152
During the first month of service

The first month should be treated as a proving

period for a new or repaired roof

Although it has been tested with water, its use

in oil means that small leaks undetected by
water could be disclosed by the greater
penetrating effect of the oil

During the first month of use, therefore, it

should be checked regularly for leaks and
153
stability
During service

During service of a floating-roof tank it is very

important that the roof is always kept
floating, for the following reasons:

1. When the roof is standing on its supports,

the tank is no longer a floating-roof tank, but
should be regarded as a fixed roof tank with
a vapour space, storing a light volatile
product
154
2. The tank bottom may have an irregular
shape due to soil settlements

When a roof lands too often on this

bottom, leaks may be formed in the tank
bottom plates

155
When a floating-roof tank is in use, a number of
basic precautions are necessary, these include
the following:

a. Roof drains and valves must be kept free of

debris and waste likely to cause blockages

b. The roof drain valve (the roof drain outlet)

must always be open. The only time this will
need to be closed is if oil leaks into the roof
drain

c. Side entry mixers should only be operated 156

when the roof is well clear of the impellers
Inspections must be carried out at regular
intervals to ensure that:

a. The centre deck and pontoons are not

leaking
b. The earthing shunts at the periphery are
in good condition (not broken)
c. The wheels of the access ladder are
running smoothly over the rail track
d. The roof seal is operating within its
tolerances for inward and outward
movement i.e. by out-of-roundness of the
157
shell caused by dents or soil settlement.
Access to the Floating Roof

Nobody should be allowed on a floating roof

unless gas tests have demonstrated that the air
above the roof is safe

There should always be a second person on

the access platform when somebody is on the
roof, to constantly observe the situation and
prepared to take immediate action in an
emergency
158
Light Gravity Crudes and Heavy Roofs

If a floating roof is designed to float on crude of

certain gravity, difficulty could be experienced
in floating it on crude of a lighter gravity than
that for which it was designed

A roof for heavy crudes will obviously sit lower

when used with lighter crudes

159
In cases where a lighter gravity crude has to be
stored under a roof designed for heavier
crudes it is advisable:

Where possible, to blend the light crude

into tanks which already have a large
quantity of heavier crude

If this is not possible, the initial pumping

rate must be carefully controlled and the
roof movement observed to ensure that it
does not become unstable 160
Vapour Pressure of the Oil Stored

Floating-roof tanks are not designed to operate

above atmospheric pressure

Consequently the roof can become unstable if

raised out of the liquid and supported on
vapour

Therefore the volatility of the product and the

storage temperature must be checked, before
the product enters the tank 161
This rule applies particularly to the storage of
very volatile products in hot climates

The maximum recommended True Vapour

Pressure (TVP) for crude stored in floating roof
tanks is

0.86 bars (12.5 psi)

162
Spiking of Oil with Butane or Propane

At some refineries it is common practice to

spike crude oil or gasoline with butane or
propane

This is done when there is an overcapacity of

butane or propane

163
Excessive spiking (sending more propane or
butane into the tank than can be dissolved in
the liquid) will create a dangerous situation for
the floating roof as free gas trapped under the
roof will make it unstable

Then, as a result of heavy rainfall, the rainwater

may run to one side and cause the roof to
tumble and sink

164
Landing the Roof

When it is necessary to land the roof, the

following is required:

a. The valve of the roof drain at the tank

shell must be fully open

b. The roof drain and drain holes in the

centre sump of the roof are not choked
by dirt or foreign matter
165
c. The roof should not be landed if there is
an accumulation of rain water on it
 d. The side-entry mixers must be switched
off when the roof is less than a few
meters above the impellers of the mixers

e. It must be checked that the centre deck

and the pontoons are not leaking

f. The roof supports and the automatic

bleeder vents must be in their high
(maintenance) position

Most important: observe the roof from a high

166
position while it is landing, to ensure it lands
squarely
Roof Standing on its Supports

The roof is most vulnerable to vertical loading

by rain water while standing on its supports

The following conditions must therefore be

fulfilled:

a. The valve of the roof drain at the tank

shell must remain open

b. Roof drain and drain holes in the centre

sump of the roof must remain free from 167
dirt or other foreign matter
c. Special attention to proper draining of the
roof is required in periods of heavy
rainfall

d. Maintenance personnel and contractors

must be instructed on the importance of
these measures

e. Side-entry mixers may not be switched on

(for de-sludging purposes)

f. Drain plugs and emergency drains in the

168
centre of the roof must be open
Tank Calibration

Methods of Calibration
Tank calibration has to be performed on:

 Every new and

 Repaired tank

This task, usually performed by a Tank

Calibration Engineer, produces a set of Tank
Tables, which when used during tank
measuring; accurately determine the quantity
169
of the tank contents
There are two methods of calibration for large
storage tanks, these are:

1. The Referee Method:

Which advocates taking circumference

measurements at the bottom of each course
and an additional measurement on the top
course 12 inches (304 mm) below the top
angle

This method is recommended for greatest170

accuracy
2. Current Operations Method:

Advocates that the minimum circumference

measurements should be:
• One at the bottom of each of the four
lower courses and
• One of the top course 12 inches
(304mm) below the top angle
The circumference of the courses not
measured is obtained by interpolation

This methods is used for working tanks 171

when precise accuracy is not required
Tanks which are badly bulging and/or dented
should not be calibrated

However in extreme circumstances damaged

tanks can be measured by taking into account
the distortions created by the defects and
calculating their effects on the capacity of the
tank

172
Definitions

Depth or tank height

Is the vertical distance from the top of the shell

(or top angle) to the inside surface of the tank
bottom

173
The oil height

Is the highest point to which a tank can be

filled without overflow, it may be:

The same as the tank height, or

Several inches, or in some cases, several

feet below the top
Because of connections for filling lines,
overflow lines, vent lines, and roof
construction 174
Circumference

Is the circular distance around the outside of

the tank

The number of such measurements required

depends on the type of tank being calibrated

175
Deadwood
Is defined as any object within the shell of the
tank that would displace fluid, such as:
Columns and braces comprising the roof
supports,
Ladders,
Steam coils,
Swing pipes, and
Projections outside the shell, which
would contain oil and thus increase the
capacity of the tank, such as pipe
connections, manholes, and clean-out 176
openings
Measurements

Depth measurements

Are usually taken on the outside of the tank

and then checked with measurements taken
inside the tank through the gauge hatch in
order to determine whether or not cement or
other material has been placed on the tank
bottom

177
Depth measurements are usually taken with a
steel tape with plumb-bob attached

The measurements reported to:

 The nearest 1/8 inch or 2 mm on steel

storage tanks and

 The nearest 1/4 inch or 5 mm on

production tanks
178
Circumferences

Are measured with a steel tape, and the tape

used in the field should be compared at regular
intervals with a master tape to ensure that the
field or working tape is correct and to
determine the proper tension to employ while
using it

179
Thickness of the tank walls

If the thickness of the tank walls cannot be

measured in the field, the name of the
manufacturer or fabricator of the tank should
be reported, so that the tank table engineer can
ascertain the thickness from drawings or
through correspondence with the manufacturer

Thickness of shell on steel tanks is reported to

the nearest 1/64 inch or 1 millimeter
180
Pipe line connection

The pipe line connection measurement is taken

on production tanks and some station working
tanks; it is the distance from the bottom of the
tank to the bottom of the outlet connection

181
Deadwood

The walls and deadwood of all tanks should be

kept as free as possible of accumulations of:

 Scale,
 Paraffin, or
 Other substances

that would affect the capacity of the tank

182
Incrustation has the same effect as deadwood
and should be handled accordingly

When the build-up reaches a point where it

materially affects the quantity of oil in the tank,
it is required to clean the tank

If it is impractical or impossible to clean the

tank, then a new table must be prepared taking
into consideration the additional deadwood
183
5 TANK MAINTENANCE

184
Tanks require maintenance, both internally and
externally

This includes preventive measures to fight:

 Tank corrosion,
 Pipeline connections,
 Accessories,
 Access ladders and
 Walkways

It also includes repair 185

External Maintenance of Tanks

186
Internal Maintenance of Tanks

187
Emptying and Blanking off the Tanks
1. Before any work is done:
 Release vapours
 All sources of ignition should be
eliminated from the area where flammable
vapour may be present or may travel
 Roads should be closed and signs
posted to keep vehicles and other
potential sources of ignition away form
the area
 Particular attention should be paid to the
wind direction in defining the extent of 188
the hazard
2. Initial cleaning
Normally, the operations department have to
carried out any initial cleaning steps, such as:

 Hot gas oil circulation or

 Treatment with chemicals

3. Empty the tank

Furthermore, should also empty the tank to as
low a level as possible using the normal
system, prior to handing over the tank for
cleaning 189
4. Product (Liquid) removal
Can then be achieved by:

 Connecting a hose to the drain valve or

pumping the bottoms to a slops tank, or

 Raising the oil level by pumping water

into the tank and removing the oils
through the normal suction line

The use of water is particularly valuable if

the tank is tilting or has an uneven 190
bottom
If water is used with certain products, such as

 Motor gasoline containing an anti-icing

additive,

 Aviation fuels or

 Other products with a critical water

specification

Such products should always be pumped to

slops and not to the finished product tanks 191
The presence of sediment or sludge may
greatly hinder liquid removal

This is normally recognized in the initial stages

• Hot gas oil or

• Certain chemicals may be used to counter
this

but nothing further should be done until the

tank is opened after the gas-freeing step
192
5. Flushing of Tank Connections
Next, all lines to and from the tank should be
cleared and flushed with water or drained

In the water flushing/pumping operations, care

should be taken to restrict the flow of slops as
well as water, to a velocity of 1 meter per
second, in order to avoid static electricity
hazards

193
6. Tank Isolation
After the completion of flushing, tank-side
valves should then be closed, caution tabs
attached to them, and the lines isolated either
by disconnecting or blanking

Foam and drain lines are exceptions, and may

remain in service until gas-freeing has been
carried out

194
7. Water Draining
After isolation has been completed, the tank
will contain water with a thin film of product on
its surface

This remaining liquid should then be drained

off until traces of product appear

The remnants either being removed by:

 Vacuum truck, pumped by hand into

barrels, or
 Allowed to pass into the petroleum 195
interceptor for skimming off
8. Removal and disposal of sediment
Provisions should also be made for the
disposal of sediment and for its removal from
the tank compound

Burying of the sediment within the tank

compound is not recommended because of:

- Possible contamination of groundwater

- In the general Interests of good housekeeping
196
If the amount of sediment is small, and is not
pyrophoric, consideration can be given to
disposal within the compound

When the amount of sediment is great,

consideration may be given to building ramps
over bund/fire walls, or using large containers
that can be handled by a crane

197
Gas Freeing
Before allowing people without suitable
respiratory protection to enter a tank, the tank
should be freed from flammable/toxic vapours,
and the oxygen level raised to more than
20 % v
Gas-freeing is usually done by:

 Natural ventilation,
 Mechanical ventilation, or
 Steam (in certain cases) 198
 199
Wind sail
 200
Air Blower
 201
Air Extraction
To a much lesser degree

 Inert gas and

 Water displacement methods are used

Raising the oxygen level can of course only be

achieved by either:

 Natural or
 Forced ventilation
202
Pure oxygen should never be used for
ventilation because it enhances the explosion
hazard

If pyrophoric iron sulphide is present, special

precautions are necessary during gas-freeing
as the introduction of air may cause the
deposits to ignite

203
Tank Cleaning

Tank cleaning is usually done with the aid of

portable machines

Some tanks that require frequent cleaning may

be fitted with fixed cleaning guns

204
These guns clean the tanks with a rotating
high pressure water jet

The water jet rotates in such a way that all

parts of the tank are reached

The impact of the water jet loosens all

adherent oil and dirt

205
Oil or chemicals may be used for jetting
instead of water

The accumulated oil and water mixture is

removed from the tank bottom together with a
large part of the basic sediment and water by
pumping

The remaining basic sediment and water has to

be removed by hand and for this purpose some
tanks have a special removable plate in the
lower course of the shell plates 206
After the tank or vessel:

 Has been emptied (as far as possible),

 Certified as gas-free and
 Work permit has been issued

Cleaners are allowed to enter that tank and

commence work

207
There are various cleaning methods possible,
and a selection or combination of methods may
be made depending on each particular case

In most instances, the use of water is widely

applicable, and this is used in conjunction with
pumps and nozzles:
- Some with hand-held hoses, and
- Others through fixed jets

If the tank cannot be maintained gas-free, (e.g. it

still contains a large quantity of sludge), 208
cleaning jets are used
Cleaning of Fixed-roof Tanks
Cleaning with hand-held fire-hoses and high
capacity fixed tank cleaning equipment is
unsafe if the tank contains:

 Crude,
 Gas oil, or
 Lighter fractions

This is because high electrostatic space

charges may be created by water getting into
the product remnants which could lead209 to
incendiary discharges
Electrostatic charges are high only if oil is
present in the mist created by the jet

Hoses therefore may only be used if there are

definitely no pools of oil present in the tank

This may be difficult to ensure if large

quantities of sludge are present

However by filling the bottom of the tank with

water, it may effectively float off any oil present
210
Cleaning of Floating-roof Tanks
Bottom Cleaning, with:

 Hand-held fire-hoses and

 High capacity fixed tank cleaning
equipment

Is safe, provided the roof is settled on its legs,

and the leg settings do not exceed 2 meters

The flat pancake shape of the vapour space

does not allow space charges to build up211
to
dangerous voltage levels
If the bottom sediment can no longer be
pumped; gas oil or any other suitable light oil
may be used to make the bottoms less viscous

This can be done by installing a pump (not

combustion engine drive) in the tank pit,
connecting the suction to a source of light oil,
(road tanker), and discharging via a rubber
hose through a tank manhole

212
When the washing oil becomes fairly viscous,
the oil is pumped out via:

 The drain, or
 The suction hose of a second pump, (not
combustion engine driven)

The process is repeated until further cleaning in

this way is no longer effective

213
At this stage:
- All leg drain holes of floating roof tanks
- Heating coils

Should be checked and cleared if necessary

If pyrophoric iron is present, the internal

surface of the tank should be kept wet to
prevent spontaneous ignition

214
In some cases, large quantities of sludge often
remain which defy removal by methods other
than manual

In practice two possibilities remain, either

manual removal, or the use of water hoses
from tank manholes which will-break down the
sludge further for removal by vacuum truck or
sludge pump

215
If complete oil removal is difficult, do not start
to use water hoses until the tank is pronounced
gas-free

There should be continuous forced ventilation

while jetting, preferably using an air-extractor
on a roof manhole with a flexible trunk
extending to the bottom part of the tank

Vapour concentrations must be continuously

monitored at several different places (If vapour
concentrations rise to 10 % LEL, jetting must216
stop until the atmosphere is again gas-free)
Finally the cleaners should enter the tank;
wearing air supplied breathing apparatus, and
Using wooden tools, pushes the remaining
sludge to the drain, pump suction, or tank
manhole

Ventilation should continue during this period

and frequent gas tests taken

In any case personnel should leave the tank if

the concentration approaches 50 % LEL
217
Heating coils, roof supports and other internals
should then be cleaned by hosing with gas oil

Cleaning of tank walls, bottom and

internals

The next step is further cleaning of tank walls,

bottom and internals with water jets

The washing is usually done with a 10 bar

water stream 218
Because of static hazards, this procedure may
be unsafe if there is a possibility of vapour
release creating an explosive atmosphere as a
result of disturbing any remaining sludge

Special care is therefore still required at this

stage to ensure that the tank vapour
concentration is checked and kept gas-free

219
The scale or sediment will contain a high
proportion of rust, and will have to be collected
and removed

This is usually done manually after the water

has been discharged into the drainage system

Care should be taken that any pyrophoric iron

is kept wet during removal

220