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ME 222: Manufacturing Technology I

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Guwahati

Module 3

Metal Forming

 Various metal forming techniques and their analysis, viz., forging,

rolling, extrusion, wire drawing
 Sheet metal working (deep drawing, bending, punching and
blanking)
 Super plastic deformation
 Metal forming defects

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Introduction

• Forming - desired shape and size is given to a material through plastic deformation without
any loss of material.
• Plastic deformation to shape production method
• Plasticity – ability to flow of solids without deterioration of their properties
• Bulk metal forming – complex state of material flow
• Sheet metal forming – plane strain
• Stress applied between yield strength and fracture strength of material
• Type of loading: tensile, compressive, bending or shearing or combination of these

Cold forming Working temperature is less than recrystallization temperature

Hot forming Working temperature is higher than recrystallization temperature

Common forming processes: Rolling, Forging, Drawing, Deep drawing, Bending and Extrusion

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 3

Introduction

Warm forming: temperature intermediate to

hot and cold forming
Possible reduction in number of anneals due to
reduction in strain hardening
Mostly applied to bulk forming processes

Isothermal forming: temperature sensitive

materials, deformation at constant
temperature

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Mechanics of bulk metal forming

ROLLING

Thickness of a slab or plate is reduced by two opposing

cylindrical tools called rolls

 The rolls rotate so as to draw the work into the gap between
them and squeeze it

 Based on recrystallization temperature, it may be hot rolling or

cold rolling process

Types of rolling process: ring rolling, roll bending, roll

forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling

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Mechanics of Rolling Process

Entry and exit velocities of the strips are different such that Exit Entry
𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉 > 𝑉𝑖 Neutral point
where V is roller velocity

Pressure
 When the strip velocity is equal to roller velocity – neutral
point
Contact angle
The friction force changes its direction after neutral point Pressure distribution

 Estimate rolling pressure distribution as a function of

geometric parameters

Both rolls are equal radius and rotate with same circumferential
velocity

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Mechanics of Rolling Process

 Assume unit width of the strip Entry

Exit
 Consider vertical component of the force at the roll-strip interface
Neutral point
 Since the included angle is very small, the roll strip interface friction is
Pressure

negligible in vertical direction

 Friction resists the rotation of the roll before neutral point whereas it
helps the rotation afterwards

Contact angle
𝜃 𝜃
Roll separating force: 𝐹 = ‫׬‬0 𝑖 𝑝𝑅 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ≈ ‫׬‬0 𝑖 𝑝𝑅𝑑𝜃 Pressure distribution

𝜃𝑛 𝜃𝑖
𝐹 = න 𝑝1 𝑅𝑑𝜃 + න 𝑝2 𝑅𝑑𝜃
0 𝜃𝑛
𝜃𝑖 𝜃 𝜃
Driving Torque: T = ‫׬‬0 𝜇𝑝𝑅 2 𝑑𝜃 = − ‫׬‬0 𝑛 𝑝1 𝑅 2 𝑑𝜃 + ‫𝑝 𝑖 𝜃׬‬2 𝑅 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑛
Driving power per roll: 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔

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Role of friction in metal forming

 Friction increases the work load and power loss

 Friction stress changes the principal stress direction
 High friction also creates dead zone in extrusion and built-up
edges - affects the surface finish
Role of friction in strip rolling 𝒑 ∙ ∆𝒍

Horizontal force components 𝜇𝑝 ∙ ∆𝑙 cos 𝜃 ≥ 𝑝 ∙ ∆𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝝁𝒑 ∙ ∆𝒍

𝜇 ≥ tan 𝜃
𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓 cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝜇≥𝜃 𝜃= 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑅 𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥
𝑅
𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓
𝜇≥ 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓 ≤ 𝜇 2 𝑅
𝑅 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓 ≤ 𝜇2𝑅
𝑚𝑎𝑥

FORGING

 Workpiece is compressed between two parallel dies

- die shapes are imparted to the work

 Involves localised compressive forces – created by

a hammer

Can be classified as hot, warm or cold working

process

The forging force attains the maximum value at the

end of the operation

The entire workpiece is plastically deform during

the process
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FORGING

 The coefficient of friction is an important parameter

Sliding Sticking
𝜏 = 𝜇𝑝 𝜏 = 𝜎𝑠 friction friction
x
𝜏 − 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 l
Forging force (per unit width)
𝑝 − 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝒙′′ 𝒍
𝑭=𝟐 න 𝒑𝟏 𝒅𝒙 + න 𝒑𝟐 𝒅𝒙 Forging of strip
𝟎 𝒙′′
𝜎𝑠 - shear yield strength
𝒓′′ 𝑹
For a circular disk 𝑭 = 𝟐𝝅 න 𝒑𝟏 𝒓𝒅𝒓 + න 𝒑𝟐 𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝟎 𝒓′′

Thickness of strip is small as compared to other dimensions

Length of strip is much more than width (plane strain type)

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EXTRUSION

 Deformation is similar to drawing but compressive

load is applied instead

 Material is forced to flow through a die opening –

takes the shape of cross section

 Creates very complex cross-sections

 Able to handle brittle materials – because mostly

subjected to compressive stress and shear stress

 Both hot or cold working is possible

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EXTRUSION

𝜋 2 𝜋
 Continuity equation: 𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑖2 𝑉𝑅
4 4

Workdone per unit volume due to 𝜀

plastic deformation 𝑊𝑃 = න 𝜎𝑑𝜀 𝑉𝑅
0

𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 = 2𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑓 𝑑𝑓

𝜋 2 𝜋
Assume average value of stress = yield stress Deformation per unit time: 𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑖2 𝑉𝑅
𝜀
4 4
𝑑𝑖
𝑊𝑃 = න 𝜎𝑑𝜀 = 2𝜎𝑦 𝑙𝑛
0 𝑑𝑓 𝛑 𝟐
Power used in plastic deformation: 𝐖𝐏 𝐝 𝐕
𝟒 𝐢 𝐑

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DRAWING

Drawing is a similar to extrusion and tensile force is used instead of compressive load

Multiple stages can be used 𝐴𝑖 1

True strain: 𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 = ln
𝐴𝑓 1−𝐷
Single or multiple dies can be used for this purpose

 The process is cold working process as well as can be set as hot working process for large
wires to reduce forces

Degree of drawing (D) operation:

2
𝐴𝑖 − 𝐴𝑓 𝑑𝑖2 − 𝑑𝑓2 𝑑𝑓
𝐷= = = 1 −
𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖

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Analysis of forming processes

Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest

• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the material

• Plastic deformation behavior is expressed by

𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛

Where 𝜎𝑓 − Flow stress; K - strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent

Flow curve based on true stress and true strain.

• For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when deformed due to strain
hardening.

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Analysis of forming processes

Analysis of stress-strain curve

• Elastic limit
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Elastic recovery
• Workdone
• Strain hardening behavior

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Stress Transformation - Generalization

The stress transformation is a way to describe the effect of combined loading on a stress
element at any orientation.
From geometry and equilibrium conditions (SF = 0 and SM = 0),
 x  y x y
x  1
 cos(2 )   xy sin(2 )
2 2
x y
 x y1  
1
sin(2 )   xy cos(2 )
2

 x  y x y
y  1
 cos(2 )   xy sin(2 )   x1 (  90 º )
2 2

Stress Transformation
 Given stresses at one angle we can calculate stresses at any arbitrary angle
 Even a uniaxial loading (x) will create both perpendicular (y) and shear (xy) loadings
upon rotation
 If any of the transformed stresses at angle  exceed the material’s yield stress, the
material will fail in this direction, even if it was loaded by lower stresses.
 Sometimes the way this
works out is failure by
shear, which is not obvious.
Materials are often weaker
in shear.

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Analysis of forming processes

Tresca’s yield condition: Plastic flow depends on slip which is shearing process
• Yielding would occur when the greatest shear stress reaches a critical value
• In the tensile test where 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0, the greatest maximum shear stress at yielding is 𝜏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 𝜎𝑦 /2
𝜎 −𝜎 𝜎𝑦
• This yielding would occur at 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ; 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑦
2 2
• The yielding is independent of the intermediate principal stress
• In the plane stress where 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 = 0; 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦

von Mises’ yield condition: Maximum distortion energy criteria

• Plastic flow occurs when the shear strain energy reaches a critical value
• The von Mises yield criterion says that yielding will occur when the root-mean-square value of the maximum
1
shear stress reaches a critical value. Strain energy = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2
6𝐺
2 2 2
• 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = 6GA = C (Constant)
• Plastic flow depends on all principal stresses
• As per plane stress condition; the criterion is: 𝜎12 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22 = 𝜎𝑦

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Analysis of forming processes

Relation between tensile and shear yield strength

Uniaxial tensile testing: 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 : 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0

Yielding under pure shear condition: 𝜎1 = 𝜏𝑦 : 𝜎2 = 0; 𝜎3 = −𝜏𝑦

von Mises’ yield condition

2 2 2
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 =C 𝜏𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 Τ 3

Tresca’s yield condition 𝜏𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 Τ2

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Contact pressure at rolling operation

𝑝 2𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑖 𝜇 𝜆𝑖 −𝜆
= 1− 𝑒
2𝜏𝑦 𝑡𝑖 2𝜏𝑦 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 =
𝑅

𝑝 2𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑓 𝜇𝜆
= 1− 𝑒
2𝜏𝑦 𝑡𝑓 2𝜏𝑦
𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅 𝑅
𝜆=2 tan−1 𝜃
𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓

Exit Entry
𝜎𝑥𝑖
1−
1 1 𝑡𝑓 2𝜏𝑦
𝜆𝑛 = 𝜎𝑥𝑓 + 𝜆𝑖 𝑅 𝑅
2 𝜇 𝑡𝑖 𝜆𝑖 = 2 tan−1 𝜃

Pressure
1− 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓 𝑖
2𝜏𝑦

0 Contact angle 𝜃𝑖
Derivation is not required
Pressure distribution

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Estimation of pressure distribution and forging force

Forging of strip using the following assumptions Derivation is required

1. The forging force attains the maximum value at the end of the operation
2. The entire workpiece is plastically deform during the process
3. Coefficient of friction remains constant
4. Thickness of the workpiece is small as compared to other dimensions
5. Variation of stress field along y direction is negligible
6. The problem is plain strain type
7. Length of sample (z-direction) is unity

 To make analysis simpler, -p and 𝜎𝑥 are considered as the principal stresses

 Sliding and sticking friction conditions are imposed

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Determination of work load for extrusion process – energy considerations

 Compressive load is applied

 With a flat-face die and high friction creates a dead
zone
 Dead zone is approximated as half-cone angle of
45°
 Frictional stress between the dead zone and the
conical work surface is taken as shear yield stress

 Calculate frictional power loss

 Calculate rate of energy expenditure in plastic deformation
in the conical zone
Rate of energy input to BB section = power in plastic deformation +
power to overcome friction
Derivation is required

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ROLLING PROCESS

• Rolling is the process to shape a metal into a thin long layer by passing it two rollers
rotating in opposite direction.
• Rolls are normally made up of cast or forged steel.
• The desired dimension of strip is achieved in multiple passes by adjusting the gap
between the rollers after each pass. Rolling Process

• Three high rolling mill with loop is used where long and flexible job is available.
• The looping is done by using bent tube or trough, known as repeater.
• Continuous rolling operation can be done by arranging the rolling equipment with one
roll pass near each other.
• Roll deflection can be reduced by using backing rolls.
• Backing rolls are larger in size than the drive rolls to increase rigidity.
• Roll bending can be avoided by using non cylindrical rolls and the process is known
Single Backing Rolls
as cambering.

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ROLLING PROCESS

Rolls with Camber

Double Backing Rolls

DEFECTS IN ROLLING Defects in Rolling

• The source of defects in rolling operation are surface irregularities, nonmetallic

inclusion and internal blow holes in workpiece.
• Surface irregularity may lead to the entrapment of scales within the laps.
• Non metallic inclusion produces crocodile cracks.
• Internal blow leads to the elongation of the blow holes resulting in the weakness
of product.
• Internal cracks are formed due to non uniform rolling.
• Residual stress remains due to the deformation at the surface only.

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FORGING PROCESS

• There are different type of forging process such as

1. Smith Forging – Hand held tool or power driven hammers are used to impart the repeated blows.
2. Drop Forging – Impact loads are applied to the workpiece to cause metal flow for filling up cavity formed by the
two halves of closed die.
3. Press Forging – Gradual force is applied instead of repeated blows.

Smith Forging Drop Forging

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FORGING PROCESS

4. Upset Forging – A localized forging operation is commonly known as upsetting. It may be open or closed
operation. The operation involves a longitudinal compression of the bar stock.
5. Swaging – Variation of impact forging where the repeated blows are obtained by a radial movement of shaped dies.
It is used for reducing the diameter and tapering of bars and tubes.
6. Roll Forging – Performed with two semicircular, grooved rolls held by two parallel shafts. The heated workpiece
is placed between the dies in an open position. After half revolution of the rolls the workpiece is rolled out.

Upset Forging Roll Forging Swaging

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FORGING PROCESS

DEFECTS IN FORGING
• The source of defects in the forging are defects in the stock, improper heating, and poor die design.
• Cold shut occur due to the misplacement of metal in the die.
• Unfilled section may results due to the less amount of material, improper heating and misplacement of the metal.
• Scale pit are formed if the scale are not removed from die surface.
• Mismatched forging may result due to the misaligned two halves of dies.
• Barreling along with the cracks may occur due to the insufficient lubrication.

Defects in Forging

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DRAWING PROCESS

• Drawing is used for reducing the diameter of bars and wires by passing them through the dies.
• The large dies are generally made up of high carbon or high speed Steel and Tungsten carbide for smaller ones.
• Large reduction can be done in multiple passes.
• Water is used as a coolant since the drawing operation generated sufficient amount of heat.
• When tube is drawn through the die, the operation is known as Sinking.

DEFECTS IN DRAWING
• The surface defects in the rod and wire are due to ploughing
by hard particles and local breakdown of lubricant film.
• Bulge formed due to the low reduction and high die angle.
• Center burst may happen due to the too large deformation
gradient along the cross section.
Drawing Process

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EXTRUSION PROCESS

• The material undergoes plastic deformation by the application of the external force causing the material to flow through
an orifice or die.
• Hot extrusion reduce the work load but poses the problem of cooling arrangement and rapid die wear.
• There are two types of extrusion process:
1) Forward Extrusion Process: The whole billet moves forward results in large frictional loss, high work load & high
radial stress.
2) Backward Extrusion Process: The billet remains stationary thus frictional force is only at the die-container
interface.
• Tubular section can be extruded by using mandrel along with ram.
• Thin walled cans can by obtained by impact intrusion.
• In hydraulic extrusion the frictional loss between billet-container interface is eliminated because the load is applied on
the fluid medium instead to the billet directly by the ram.
• The non-uniform cross-section shape can be produced by extrusion with a split die.

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EXTRUSION PROCESS

Backward Extrusion Hydraulic Extrusion

DEFECTS IN EXTRUSION
• The common defects in the extrusion arises due to back flow of material, pushing the end face of billet in core of
product.
• The Centre bust is possible with high h/L ratio.
• Surface crack develops due to the increase in the workpiece temperature during the extrusion operation.

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Defects in Metal Forming

Formation of a bulge ahead of the die with low reduction and high die angle – development of a centre burst with too
large deformation gradient along the corss-section
Half die angle is large and reduction ratio is low i.e. h/L ratio is large – the deformation is localized near the surface
and the relatively undeformed central portion is dragged f
orward by the upper layer. This causes the development of secondary tensile stresses resulting in the centre-burst
defect. When h/L is less than 2, the danger is less

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