Metal Forming Processes

Hot working

Hot working processes deform metals above their recrystallization temperature. Metals like
lead and tin can be hot-worked at room temperature, but most metals require heating below
their solidus temperature to prevent burning. The working temperature is critical because
excess heat after deformation causes grain growth, weakening mechanical properties.
Completing hot working just above the recrystallization temperature produces fine grains,
improving strength and ductility. Therefore, metals should be heated to a temperature that
keeps them slightly above recrystallization temperature after working.

Advantages:

 Large deformations possible.

 Reduced risk of cracks and defects.

Disadvantages:

 High energy consumption.

 Lower surface finish than cold working.

Applications:

 Rolling of steel sheets and plates.

 Forging of large components like shafts, beams, and wheels.
Cold working

Cold working is the deformation of metals below their recrystallization temperature, as

explained in standard foundry and metalworking texts. It improves strength and hardness
through strain hardening while enhancing dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Metals are
shaped at room temperature using presses, rolling mills, or drawing machines. Excessive
deformation can induce internal stresses or cracks, so careful control is needed. Cold working
is commonly used for producing wires, rods, sheets, and small precision components where
high accuracy, smooth surface, and improved mechanical properties are essential.

Advantages:

 Good surface finish.

 Dimensional accuracy is high.
 Strength and hardness increase.

Disadvantages:

 Limited deformation possible.

 Higher forces required.
 May cause internal stresses.

Applications:

 Sheet metal forming, bending, and drawing.

 Wire and rod manufacturing.
Warm working

Warm working is the deformation of metals at temperatures between cold and hot working,
usually below the recrystallization temperature but above room temperature. This process
reduces the force required compared to cold working while minimizing oxidation and scaling
seen in hot working. Metals are shaped using pre-heated dies and presses, achieving good
ductility and moderate strength. Warm working is suitable for bending rods, bars, and forming
medium-strength components where improved surface finish, controlled deformation, and
reduced energy consumption are desired.

Advantages:

 Moderate force required.

 Better surface finish than hot working.
 Less energy than hot working.

Disadvantages:

 Requires controlled heating.

 Slight scaling may occur.
 Equipment more expensive than cold working.

Applications:

 Bending of rods and bars.

 Production of medium-strength components with good surface finish.

Recovery

When a strain-hardened material is heated to an elevated temperature, atomic diffusion

increases, allowing atoms in highly strained regions to move to lower-energy positions in the
lattice. This process, called the recovery phase, reduces internal residual stresses without
significantly decreasing strength or hardness. Dislocations rearrange and condense into
subgrain boundaries, lowering the dislocation density within these regions. Atoms regain near-
normal positions, and the material adjusts strain on a microscopic scale. While mechanical
properties remain almost unchanged, corrosion resistance often improves.
Recrystallization

When a metal is heated to a high temperature, new strain-free grains start forming inside the
old, deformed grains and at the grain boundaries. These new grains gradually replace the
distorted grains caused by strain hardening. This process is called recrystallization and it
restores the metal’s original ductility while reducing strength. How quickly recrystallization
happens depends on the temperature, time, and amount of prior cold work. More cold work
lowers the temperature needed. Also, higher strain hardening produces more nuclei, so the new
grains are smaller at first, making the metal more uniform and relieving internal stresses.

Formability

Formability is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation without failure during
manufacturing processes like rolling, forging, or deep drawing. It depends on material
properties, temperature, strain rate, and applied stress. High formability allows complex shapes
to be produced efficiently.

Parameters affecting the yield strength of materials

1. Composition: Alloying elements like carbon, nickel, or chromium increase yield strength
by strengthening the lattice.
2. Grain Size: Smaller grains create more grain boundaries, which hinder dislocation
movement and raise yield strength.
3. Heat Treatment: Processes like quenching, tempering, or annealing modify
microstructure to increase or adjust yield strength.
4. Work Hardening: Plastic deformation increases dislocation density, enhancing
resistance to further deformation.
5. Impurities/Defects: Presence of inclusions, voids, or impurities can reduce yield strength
by providing weak points for dislocation movement.
Classification of various metal Forming processes

1. Based on Working Temperature

 Cold Working – Done below recrystallization temperature, high strength, high

accuracy, low ductility.
 Warm Working – Done in intermediate temperature range, moderate load, good
ductility and accuracy.
 Hot Working – Done above recrystallization temperature, large deformation possible,
refined grain structure.
2. Based on Type of Operation

(a) Bulk Metal Forming

Processes where bulk material is deformed with volume constancy:

 Rolling – Reducing thickness or changing cross-section by passing through rollers.

 Forging – Shaping metal by compressive forces (hammering or pressing).
 Extrusion – Forcing material through a die to produce rods, tubes, or profiles.
 Wire/Bar Drawing – Pulling metal through a die to reduce diameter of wires and bars.

(b) Sheet–Bulk Metal Forming

Processes combining sheet and bulk forming features:

 Coining – Produces detailed patterns or impressions (e.g., coins, medals).

 Ironing – Reduces wall thickness of cups or shells (used in cans, cartridges).

(c) Sheet Metal Forming

Processes where thin sheets are shaped into required forms:

 Shearing – Cutting sheet metal along straight lines.

 Blanking – Cutting out a flat piece (blank) from sheet.
 Piercing – Punching holes in sheet metal.
 Bending – Deforming sheet along an axis to create angles or channels.
 Deep Drawing – Producing cup-shaped or hollow parts (utensils, cans).
 Stretching – Extending sheet surface by tensile force to increase area.
Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

1. Friction in Metal Forming

Friction is the resistance to motion between the workpiece and the tool/die surface. It controls
material flow, forming force, and product quality.

 Helpful role → In rolling, friction is needed to pull sheet between rolls.

 Harmful role → In forging or extrusion, too much friction increases force, tool wear,
heat, and gives poor surface finish.

Models of Friction:

 Coulomb Friction: τ = μ × p (used in cold working).

 Shear Friction: τ = m × k (used in hot working).

2. Effects of Friction

 More Force Required → Increases load and power.

 Poor Finish → Causes scratches and roughness.
 Heat Generation → Tool overheats and wears faster.
 Uneven Deformation → Defects like barreling in forging.
 Shorter Tool Life → High cost due to wear and tear.

3. Lubrication in Metal Forming

Lubrication means applying a lubricant between tool and workpiece to control friction.

Functions:

 Reduces friction → saves energy.

 Improves surface finish → smoother products.
 Increases die life → less wear.
 Reduces heat → prevents overheating.
4. Types of Lubricants

 Liquid Lubricants → Oils, emulsions, soaps. Used in cold working (drawing,

rolling). Give smooth finish.
 Solid Lubricants → Graphite, MoS₂. Used in hot working (forging, extrusion). Can
bear high temperature.
 Chemical/Glass Lubricants → Glass coatings in hot extrusion/forging. Work as both
thermal barrier and lubricant.
 Special Lubricants →
o Phosphate coating → wire/tube drawing.
o Soaps, polymers → sheet forming.
o Chlorinated oils → deep drawing.

Stresses in Metal Forming Processes

1. Compressive Stress

Compressive stress is produced when the workpiece is pressed or squeezed between dies or
tools. It is the dominant stress in most forming operations, as compression helps plastic flow
and prevents fracture.

Formula:

𝐹
σc= 𝐴

Where:

 F = Applied compressive force (N)

 A = Contact area between die and workpiece (mm²)

Examples: Forging (hammer press), Rolling (reduction of thickness), Extrusion (pushing

billet).
2. Tensile Stress

Tensile stress is generated when the material is pulled or stretched during forming. Unlike
compression, it may cause necking or tearing if it exceeds the ductility limit.

Formula:

𝐹
σt = 𝐴

Where:

 F = Tensile pulling force (N)

 A = Cross-sectional area under tension (mm²)

Examples: Wire drawing, Tube drawing, Deep drawing, Stretch forming.

3. Shear Stress

Shear stress arises due to sliding action between layers of material or during cutting operations.
It plays a key role in shearing, blanking, piercing, and also appears at the die–workpiece
interface in rolling and extrusion.

Formula (simple shear):

𝐹
τ= 𝐴

Where:

 F = Shear force (N)

 A = Shear area (mm²)
Formula (torsional shear):

𝑇.𝑟
τ= 𝐽

Where:

 T = Applied torque (N·mm)

 r = Radius of shaft or part (mm)
 J = Polar moment of inertia (mm⁴)

Examples: Shearing, Blanking, Piercing, Rolling (friction), Extrusion interface.

Forging

Basic operations

1. Upsetting

 Upsetting means increasing the cross-sectional area of the workpiece while reducing
its length.
 Done by applying compressive force along the longitudinal axis.
 Used in making bolt heads, fasteners, and flanges.

2. Drawing Out (or Lengthening)

 Drawing out is the process of reducing the cross-sectional area and increasing the
length of the workpiece.
 Achieved by hammering or pressing along the short axis.
 Used for making rods, shafts, and elongated components.
3. Fullering

 In fullering, a pair of tools called fullers are used to redistribute metal in a localized
region.
 It creates depressions or grooves to prepare the workpiece for further shaping.
 Helps control metal flow during forging.

4. Edging

 Edging is performed to gather metal into a specific area using edging tools.
 It ensures that enough material is available at a particular location for subsequent
operations.
 Common in closed-die forging.

5. Bending

 Bending is the operation of curving or shaping the workpiece into an angular or curved
form.
 Performed by hammering against a die or using a press.
 Used in hooks, clamps, and brackets.

6. Punching and Drifting

 Punching: Making a hole in hot metal using a punch.

 Drifting: Enlarging or finishing a punched hole using a drift tool.
 These are common in eye bolts, rings, and connecting rods.

7. Cutting (Hot Chiseling)

 Cutting is done to separate extra metal or trim flash after forging.

 A hot chisel or press-cutting tool is used.
8. Swaging

 Swaging is used to reduce or shape the cross-section of bars, rods, or tubes by

hammering in a die cavity.
 Produces tapered or stepped shapes.

Types of forging

1. Hammer/drop forging: The applied force is impact type.

2. Press forging: Load is applied gradually. Based on the nature of material deformation or
direction of applied force forging process is divided as:

Upset forging :- In this process, force is applied parallel to the length direction. This is the
operation of increasing the cross section at the expense of length. Heads of nails, bolts and
other hardware products are formed through this technique.

Drawing out :- In this process, force is applied perpendicular to the length axis of the billet.
This is the operation in which cross section area decreases with increase of length. Based on
the geometry of the dies by which material is compressed to get a shape forging process is
divided as:
Open die forging :- In this type, the work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing metal
to flow freely laterally with minimum constraint. These types of operations are performed for
initial breakdown of the billet.

Closed die or Impression die forging :- In this type of process, the work piece is compressed
between two die halves which carry the impressions of the desired shape that is to be imparted
on the work piece. Metal flow is constrained and we get a multidirectional unbroken grain flow
inside the product giving better mechanical properties. The extra metal is expelled out as flash
mostly at parting line.

Flashless forging :- In this type of forging the volume of the workpiece is equal to the volume
of the die cavity, with no requirement of flash arrangement.
Forging hammers/ presses

1. Forging Hammers

Hammers deform the workpiece by delivering high-energy repeated blows. They are suitable
for open-die forging and small to medium forgings.

Types of Forging Hammers:

 Gravity Drop Hammer (Board Drop Hammer) → Ram lifted mechanically, falls by
gravity. Simple, low cost, used for small jobs.
 Power Drop Hammer → Ram lifted by steam, air, or hydraulics, then dropped. Higher
energy than gravity type.
 Counterblow Hammer → Two rams move toward each other, minimizing vibrations
and foundation load. Suitable for large forgings.
 Spring/Helve Hammer → Used in blacksmith shops; spring/beam stores energy and
delivers repeated blows.

Features:

 High strain rate (impact action).

 Low accuracy compared to presses.
 Economical for small and medium forgings.
2. Forging Presses

Presses deform the workpiece by gradual squeezing action. They are suitable for closed-die
forging and large forgings requiring accuracy.

Types of Forging Presses:

 Mechanical Press → Flywheel and crankshaft convert rotary motion to pressing

action. High production rate, used for small/medium parts.
 Hydraulic Press → Uses fluid pressure (Pascal’s law). Provides very high force,
suitable for very large forgings.
 Screw Press → Ram connected to a screw; rotated by flywheel. Gives controlled
deformation, used for precision forging.
 Upset Forging Machine (Upsetter) → Special press for producing bolts, screws, and
headed parts by upsetting.

Features:

 Low strain rate (squeezing action).

 High accuracy, better surface finish.
 Suitable for large, precise, closed-die forgings.
Forging stages and force calculations

Forging Stages

1. Edging (or Fullering)

This is the first stage where material is gathered into certain areas of the billet using fullers

or edging tools. It spreads or accumulates the metal to ensure enough stock for regions like

flanges or heads. This step reduces forging load in later stages by controlling how metal

flows.

2. Blocking

In this stage, the billet is given a rough shape similar to the final product but with

allowances. It removes excess material, aligns the metal flow lines, and reduces

deformation complexity in the finishing die. This step also lowers die wear.

3. Finishing

Here, the workpiece is pressed into the final die cavity to get the exact shape and size. Extra

metal flows into the flash. Finishing ensures accuracy, smooth surface finish, and removes

internal defects by proper filling of the die.

4. Trimming

This is the last stage where flash and extra material are cut off using trimming dies. It gives

the forging its final shape, improves appearance, and makes the product ready for further

machining if required.
Force Calculations in Forging

Forging force depends on workpiece area, material strength, friction, and shape factor.

General Formula for Forging Force (F):

F = k ⋅ Yf ⋅ AF

Where:

 F = Forging force (N)

 k = Forging shape factor (1.1 – 1.3 for open die, 3 – 5 for closed die)
 Yf = Flow stress of material (N/mm²)
 A = Projected contact area (mm²)

For Open-Die Forging (Compression of Flat Slab):

𝛍. 𝐡
F = σavg ⋅ A (1+ 2 . 𝑏 )

Where:

 σavg = Average flow stress

 A = Contact area
 μ = Coefficient of friction
 h = Height of workpiece
 b = Width of workpiece

For Closed-Die Forging:

F = Yf ⋅ A ⋅k

Where k accounts for friction and shape complexity (usually 3–5).

For Upset Forging (cylinder compression):

d² 𝟐𝛍 .𝐝
F = σavg ⋅ π ⋅ ⋅ (1+ )
4 ℎ

Where:

 σavg = Average flow stress

 d = Diameter of billet
 h = Height of billet

Die design considerations

1. Material of Die

1. Use hot-work tool steels like H11, H13.

2. Must resist wear, impact, and heat.
3. Apply proper heat treatment for hardness.
4. Surface hardening (nitriding) increases life.

2. Shape and Geometry

1. Die cavity follows product shape.

2. Allow machining and shrinkage allowances.
3. Multi-piece dies for complex parts.
4. Provide clear parting line.

3. Draft Angle

1. Taper on vertical walls of cavity.

2. Makes removal of forging easy.
3. Prevents sticking to die surface.
4. Typical value: 3°–7° in hot forging.
4. Fillet and Corner Radii

1. Avoid sharp internal corners.

2. Fillets ensure smooth metal flow.
3. Reduce stress concentration and cracking.
4. Increase die life by less wear.

5. Flash Design

1. Flash land controls pressure in cavity.

2. Flash thickness affects load and waste.
3. Gutter collects excess metal safely.
4. Proper design ensures full die filling.

6. Grain Flow

1. Dies must guide grain along shape.

2. Improves strength and toughness.
3. Enhances fatigue resistance of forging.
4. Important for parts like rods and shafts.

7. Cooling and Die Life

1. Cooling channels reduce thermal cracks.

2. Maintain uniform die temperature.
3. Lubrication lowers friction and sticking.
4. Surface treatments improve durability.

8. Economy and Maintenance

1. Use inserts for easy replacement.

2. Reduce downtime by modular design.
3. Balance cost with expected die life.
4. Plan repair and inspection schedules.
Forging applications

1. Automobile parts – Crankshafts, connecting rods, gears.

2. Aerospace parts – Landing gear, turbine shafts, engine blades.
3. Railway components – Axles, wheels, couplings.
4. Agricultural tools – Ploughs, hoes, spades.
5. Hand tools – Hammers, wrenches, chisels.
6. Industrial machinery – Shafts, gears, press parts.
7. Oil and gas industry – Drill bits, valves, flanges.
8. Defense and weapons – Gun barrels, armor parts, missiles.
9. Construction hardware – Hooks, clamps, chains.
10. Medical implants – Surgical instruments, orthopedic joints.

Defects and remedies in forging process

1. Laps

 Cause: Improper flow, folding of metal, sharp corners.

 Remedy: Provide proper die design, use correct radii and draft.

2. Cold Shut

 Cause: Incomplete filling of die, low temperature.

 Remedy: Maintain proper forging temperature and better material flow.

3. Scale Pits

 Cause: Oxide scales trapped on surface during forging.

 Remedy: Clean billet surface, use protective atmosphere or flux.

4. Internal Cracks

 Cause: Excessive forging load, improper temperature.

 Remedy: Use correct heating range and avoid over-stressing.
5. Incomplete Filling (Underfilling)

 Cause: Insufficient material, improper die cavity filling.

 Remedy: Provide proper billet size and ensure complete die filling.

6. Misalignment

 Cause: Improper die alignment or slipping.

 Remedy: Align dies properly and maintain fixtures.

7. Surface Cracks

 Cause: Low forging temperature, excessive friction.

 Remedy: Use correct heating, lubrication, and smooth die design.

8. Porosity

 Cause: Trapped gases or shrinkage cavities.

 Remedy: Use sound raw material and proper heating.

9. Exessive Flash

 Cause: Oversized billet or poor flash design.

 Remedy: Correct billet size and proper flash land design.

10. Die Wear

 Cause: High temperature, friction, and repeated impact.

 Remedy: Use die steels (H11, H13), apply lubrication, and surface treatments.