Unit-I
Chapter-1
Introduction and
Concepts
By
Ravichandran G
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mech.engg.
CUFE,Bengaluru
Definition of metal forming/ working
Metal working is a process in which the desired
shape and size of the component is obtained
through plastic deformation of the metal.
In otherwords, the component is formed
without removing any material from it.
The tool, usually called a die, The stresses/
forces applied during forming are exceed the
yield strength of the metal ,but less than the
fracture strength.
The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
Characteristics of metal forming
processes.
The components formed through plastic
deforming possesses better mechanical
properties than obtained by
casting/machining
The wastage of material is either
negligible or very small
The production rate is very high with the
forming process.
Eg. Body panels of automobiles, pressure
vessels, tanks, IC engine connecting
rods etc
Material Properties in Metal
Forming
Desirable material properties:
Low yield strength
High ductility
These properties are affected by
temperature:
Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
Other factors:
Strain rate and friction
Classification of
metal forming
processes
Based
on the nature of force applied
Direct compression type-Forging,Rolling
Indirect compression type-Extrusion
Tension type-Stretch forming, wire and
bar drawing
Bending type-Bending
Shearing type-Shearing
Based on the working temperature
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working
Stresses in Metal Forming
Stresses to plastically deform the metal
are usually compressive
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
Still others apply shear stresses (shear
spinning)
Rolling
Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling
Forging
Basic bulk deformation processes: forging
Extrusion
Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion
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Wire and Bar Drawing
Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing
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Sheet Metal Bending
Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending
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Deep Drawing
Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing
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Shearing of Sheet Metal
Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing
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1. Cold Working
Performed
at room temperature or
slightly above
Many cold forming processes are
important mass production operations
Minimum or no machining usually
required
These operations are near net shape or
net shape processes
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Advantages of Cold Forming
Better
accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in
product
No heating of work required
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Disadvantages of Cold Forming
Higher
forces and power required in the
deformation operation
Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed
to allow further deformation. In other
cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
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2. Warm Working
Performed
at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
Dividing line between cold working and
warm working often expressed in terms
of melting point:
0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point
(absolute temperature) for metal
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Advantages of Warm Working
Lower
forces and power than in cold
working
More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
Low spring back
Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
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3. Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature = about onehalf of
melting point on absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level
Formation of new grains is called recrystallization.The
temperature at which recrystallization occurs is called
recrystallization temperature.
Recrystallization is reduce the strength and hardness
of a material and simultaneous increase in ductility.
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Advantages of Hot Working
Workpart shape can be significantly
altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold
working can be hot formed
Strength properties of product are
generally isotropic
No work hardening occurs during forming
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Disadvantages of Hot Working
Lower
dimensional accuracy in case of
bulk forming
Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer
surface finish
Shorter tool life
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Difference b/w Cold and
Hot
working
Sl.N
o.
Hot working
Cold working
The metal is subjected to
mechanical working
above RCT
The metal is subjected to
mechanical
working below RCT.
Uniform fine equiaxed grains
Properties are uniform in any
direction.
Elongated columnar grains
Properties are higher in a
particular direction.
Properties are uniform in any
direction
The properties are higher
in a particular direction
than the other.
The components will have
Isotropic properties.
The component will be
anisotropic in nature
Energy required for
deformation is less.
Energy required for
deformation is more.
No strain hardening takes
place in the metal
Strain hardening takes
place in the metal
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Sl.N
o.
Hot working
Cold working
Large components can be
hot worked easily
Only small component s can
be cold worked.
Surface oxidation occurs,
scaling will be present and
surface finish is poor.
Surface oxidation is less, scale
formation is also less and
surface finish is good.
Pores are minimized and
inclusion gets redistributed.
Pores and inclusions cannot be
taken care of to a great extent
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Capacity of the equipment is The capacity of the equipment
less
required for cold working is
less.
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Needs extra equipment for
heating of the metal.
Does not need extra
equipment as in hot working.
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Handling of hot metal is
difficult.
Handling of metal is not very
difficult.
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Wrought Products
It refers to those products such as rods, bars, plates, tubes and wires
that are produced by Hot or Cold working process.
Characteristics of wrought products;
1. Products are formed by deformation of metal in its plastic state.
2. Wrought products are ductile in nature.
3. Products are free from defects like blow holes, porosity, and
surface irregularities.
4. Products have better mechanical properties
5. Exhibits properties in the directional metal flow.
Difference between Cast
and Wrought
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product.
Cast products
Wrought products
1.It is obtained by conversion of
liquid metal to solid state to get
the required shape of the
component in one step. The cast
product may undergo machining
operation.
1. It is obtained by subjecting the
metal
to external load or
mechanical working to get the
shape.
It may be subjected to further
operation.
2. The cast product will have
2. The wrought product will have
uniform properties.
directional properties. Properties
The product is Isotropic in nature. are Enhanced. The Product is
anisotropic in nature. i.e.
properties
are different in different
directions.
3. The product will have uniform
grain structure.
3. The product will have
directional properties and the
grain structure will be oriented.
Grains get altered.
4. The product will have small
4. Due to mechanical working the
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Cast products
Wrought products
5. Cast product will have any
shape size and complexity. Small
to very huge components
can be produced easily.
5. Wrought products can also be
produced with large size and
moderately complex shapes with
difficulty.
6.Even brittle metals can be cast
easily.
6. Brittle metals cannot be
mechanically worked.
7. The process does not need
additional equipments. Only
Regular maintenance of the
equipment is required.
7. Needs additional equipments
for mechanical working
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Advantages and Disadvantages of metal
working process.
Advantages
1. Components produced from metal working processes exhibits superior mechanical properties
2. Metal are deformed in their plastic state, the process minimizes surface defects like blow holes,
porosity etc..
3. Desirable shape can be achieved with favorable changes in microstructure
4. Thin metals can easily worked with certain metal working processes
5. Low wastage of metal. Hence more raw material savings
6. Many forming processes produce certain end products that do not require secondary operations
7. Process can be easily mechanized
Disadvantages
8.
9.
10.
11.
Initial investment of equipment is high
Tooling costs are high
Forming equipments require proper maintenance for effective functioning
Operators need to work under severed loads and temperatures
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Concept of True stress
and True
strain
Stress is defined as the load acting on a material
per unit area of the cross section.
It is the intensity of the load per unit area. When the load is
acting normal to the area of cross section then the stress
acting on the area is referred to as Normal Stress. As
the load on the cross section is increased, the value of
stress also increases.
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Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension
to its original dimension. It signifies how much change in
dimensions h as occurred under the influence of external
load. The strain in the material under the influence of a
normal load is referred to as Normal Strain
As the load on the material is increased the value of strain
also increases.
Conventional stress: It is defined as the ratio of
external load to the original area of cross section. It
is also referred to as Engineering stress.
Conventional strain: It is defined as the ratio of change
in length to its original length.
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However, the area of cross section and the length keeps on
changing continuously under the influence of the external
load.
Hence, new terms true stress and true strain are defined as
follows.
True stress: It is defined as the ratio of the external
load to the
instantaneous area of cross section.
True strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in
length to the
instantaneous previous length.
For many of the engineering applications conventional stress
and conventional strain data is sufficient. For generating true
stress and true strain very sophisticated instruments are
required,
takes lot of time and very tedious.
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Consider a bar subjected to tensile test. Let the initial
diameter
be d0 and initial length be Let it be loaded gradually from
P1 ,
P2 ,P3 Pn. Now the bar will undergo changes in
diameter
and length. The diameter will reduce and the length will
increase gradually. Let change in diameters be d1,d2,d3,.
dn
and the corresponding change in lengths be L1 ,L2 ,L3
Ln.
and the corresponding areas be A1, A2 ,A3 .An . Now
one
can calculate the conventional stress, conventional strain,
true
stress, true strain and their relationships.
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Volume of the bar is constant
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Concept of Flow stress
The stress required for plastic deformation or to make
the metal
flow to any given strain can be obtained from the true
stress true
strain curve. True stress true strain curve gives an
idea about
Y f K n Hence, it is
how the metal can flow plastically.
referred to as
where Yf = flow stress(Mpa),
Flow Curve.
i.e., the yield strength as a
function of strain
K= strength coefficient
factor(Mpa)
= strain
n = strain hardening exponent
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Consider the stress strain curve for a metal from above the yield point i.e., from the start
of plastic flow to the maximum load at which the metal begins to form neck (BC).
BC represent strain hardening region.
Taking log values of and for portion B to C, a stress strain curve can be plotted,
which is a straight line B1C1.
If this straight line B1C1 is extended back, it will intercept the s axis at D.
Let n be the slope of the line B1C1 which represents strain hardening portion BC of the
stress strain curve. This slope n, is referred to as strain hardening coefficient.
Let the straight line B1C1 cut the s axis at the origin.
Let Log 0 be the intercept as shown in the figure.
Then Log = Log 0 + n Log is the equation for a straight line.ie., equation of the
Stress at any point on the line.
Log = Log 0 +Log n
Log = Log 0 n
Y f K n
or = 0 n or
This equation is referred to as Flow Stress
