Unit 1

Hot and Cold Working of Metals

Syllabus
Principles of rolling, forging, drop, press, upset, roll
forging, extrusion, drawing, spinning, and effect of hot
working. Cold working processes, Cold rolling,
swaging, forging, extrusion- forward, backward and
impact roll forming, tube drawing, wire drawing,
spinning, shot penning, high energy rate forming, sheet
metal working, types of presses, drives, different
operations and types of dies, Forging design.
 Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing processes

ll ij ij
Primary Deforming Machining Joining Surface Material
shaping processes processes processes finishing properties
processes processes modification
~ - f-----------1

▪ Turning processes
▪ Drilling
▪ Milling ▪ Honing
▪ Casting ▪ Lapping
▪ Powder ▪ Shaping ▪ Hot
▪ reaming ▪ Buffing working
metallurgy ▪ Plating
▪ Plastic ▪ Cold
▪ Welding ▪ Coating working
processing ▪ Forging ▪ Grinding
(Unit 3) ▪ Soldering ▪ Heat
▪ Rolling ▪ Brazing treatment
▪ Sheet metal ▪ Screwing ▪ Shot
working ▪ Riveting peening
▪ Extrusion ▪ Adhesive
bonding
 Introduction
➢Mechanical working of metal is a simply plastic
deformation performed by applying mechanical
pressure to change the dimensions, properties and
surface conditions.
➢The plastic deformation takes place due to twin
and slip deformation.
➢Based on the working temperature, mechanical
working may be hot or cold working.
 Hot working
➢ Hot working is accomplished at a temperature above
the recrystallization temperature but below the
melting point of metal.
➢ The upper limit of working temperature depends on
composition of metal, prior deformation and
impurities within the metal.
➢ The changes in structure from hot working improves
mechanical properties such as ductility, toughness,
resistance to shock and vibrations, % elongation, %
reduction in area, etc.
➢ The principal hot working processes are hot rolling,
hot extrusion, hot spinning, roll piercing, hot drawing
and hot forging.
 Hot working
❑Advantages
▪ No residual stresses
▪ It refines grain structure and improves physical properties
of the metal.
▪ Impurities are disintegrated and distributed throughout the
metal.
▪ Larger deformation can be achieved more rapidly.
❑Disadvantages
▪ Rapid oxidation or scale formation takes place
▪ Poor surface finish
▪ Due to loss of carbon from steel surface, it loses fatigue
strength.
▪ Close tolerances cannot be obtained.
▪ It involves excessive expenditure on account of high tooling
cost.
 Cold working
➢It is accomplished below their recrystallization
temperature hence requires higher pressure.
➢It distorts grain structure and does not provide an
appreciate reduction in size. If material is more
ductile then it can be more cold worked.
➢In this process, residual stresses are developed
hence subsequent heat treatment is required.
➢The principal cold working processes are cold
rolling, cold drawing, cold spinning, stretch
forming, cold forging, cold extrusion, coining,
embossing, cold bending, roll forming, shot
peening, etc.
 Cold working
❑Advantages
▪ Better dimensional control
▪ Better surface finish
▪ Strength and hardness of metal are increased.
▪ Suitable to increase hardness of those metals which do not
respond to heat treatment.
❑Disadvantages
▪ Ductility is decreased
▪ Only ductile metals can be shaped
▪ Over working of metals results in brittleness and it has to
be annealed to remove the brittleness.
▪ Subsequent heat treatment process is required to remove
residual stresses.
 Difference between hot and cold working
Sr.
No. Hot working Cold working
1. Carried out above recrystallization Carried out below recrystallization
temperature but below melting point of temperature.
metal.
2. No residual stresses in part Residual stresses are developed.

3. Lesser stress required. Higher stress required.

4. Refines metal grains Distortion of grains

5. No hardening of metal Metal gets work hardened.

6. Improves impact strength and elongation Reduces impact strength and elongation

7. Poor surface finish due to oxidation Better surface finish

8. Close dimensional tolerances cannot be Superior dimensional accuracy

maintained.
9. Mostly preferred where heavy Mostly preferred where work hardening
deformation is required. is required.
 Metal forming
Metal forming processes
I
l l
Bulk deformation Sheet metal working
processes (Low SA/V ratio) processes (high SA/V
ratio)
Rolling Bending

Forging
.... Drawing or
cupping

Extrusion

Wire and bar

drawing
 Bulk deformation processes
Direc Uom of Flash i11g1
(Se·all)
feed

.i f Forged pairt
Work pi1ece - ' - ~_ _ _ _'"':_-:__-:__-:..i-1----

.. C lo sed diies

Rolling Forging

Cylinder
.i o·e
Ho t rolled
rod
Extruded prn du ct
1

➔ Ram 0
.xtrusion
dire ction
1

So lidlstoelk

Wire drawing Extrusion

 Sheet metal working processes

metal

Bending
Recess for Punch
placing blank

Final
, c pon ent

Draw ring
Drawn cup

Drawing or Cupping
 Material behavior in metal forming
cr CJ

Projected curve
if nee ing had
not occurred
100 start of nee mg
Start of necking
I
....... --
1eld poin~ start of I
I
plastic region I
I
a I
Slope n = 0 I
I
,..__ Elastic region I
I
a= Ee)
1.__ _+----+---A---.-'-...- e
---~------------.e 0.001 . 1 0.1 alb 1 0

(b) True stress-strain curve

(a) True stress-strain curve
plotted on log-log scale

Fig. 2A : tre - train cur,·c

𝝈𝒇 = 𝑲𝒆𝒏 … Flow stress K= strength coefficient in MPa

n= strain hardening exponent
𝑲𝒆𝒏 e= true strain
(𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 = …Average flow stress
𝒏+𝟏
 Strain rate sensitivity
➢The strain rate of a material is defined as the ratio
of deformation velocity(velocity of ram or other
moving element) to the instantaneous height of
the workpiece being deformed.
ሶ v/h,
𝒆=
ሶ true strain rate = de/dt in sec-1, v= speed of deformation in m/sec, h=
𝒆=
instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed in mm

➢Effect of strain rate on the properties on material is

called strain rate sensitivity. v

h
 Effect of strain rate and temperature on
cr,
flow stress
(MPa)

~
C =m
C
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I

1.0 2.0 3.. 0 4.0 e(s-1) 0.1 1.0 10 1

a) Effect of strain rate on flow b) Effect of strain rate on fl

stress at high temperature stres at high t m rat
plotted on I g-lo c t
Fig. 2.6 : Effect of strain rat

(𝝈𝒇 ) = 𝑪𝒆ሶ 𝒎
C= strength constant, m= strain rate sensitivity exponent
Effect of strain rate and temperature
on flow stress
0 t (M Pa)

Room terJ1 perature

400 oC
0

0.1 1.0 10 · 100 1000

ig. 2. 7 : Effect of temperature on flow stress for a metaJ

 Friction in metal forming
➢ In metal forming, friction arises due to close contact between
tool and workpiece as well as the high pressure during the
operation.
➢ The consequences of friction are
▪ Retardation of flowing metal which leads to residual stresses and
defects in the components.
▪ Power required for the operation increases.
▪ Tool wear which results in loss of dimensional accuracy and defective
parts.
➢ For cold working, the value of μ is 0.1-0.2 and for hot working, it
is 0.4-0.5.
➢ If the μ is very high, that condition is called as sticking friction,
where two contacting surfaces adhere each other instead of
sliding.
➢ In sticking condition, the frictional stress between the contacting
surfaces exceeds the shear flow stress of the work metal.
 Lubrication in metal forming
➢ In metal forming, lubricants are used to
▪ Reduce the sticking friction
▪ Reduce the applied forces and power required.
▪ Reduce tool wear
▪ Provide better surface finish on the components.
▪ Remove heat from the tooling.
➢ Parameters affecting the selection of lubricant are
▪ Type of forming process
▪ Method of working
▪ Material of the workpiece
▪ Chemical reactivity of the lubricant with tool and workpiece material.
▪ Method of applying the lubricant
▪ Toxicity, flammability and cost of lubricant.
➢ The commonly used lubricants for cold working processes are
mineral oils, fats and fatty oils, water-based emulsions, etc.
➢ The commonly used lubricants for hot working processes are
mineral oils, graphite, molten glass, etc.
 Rolling
❑ Hot rolling
End deform
Upper roll
Recrysta II izatio n

G rain growth

Stretched crystals

Lower roll

Fig. 2.8 : Hot rolling recrystallisation

 Rolling of various sections
l
[ 1ntermedl le rolled form
I I Final rolled form

Rails
Structural a
Bloom

s
Slab

,Rod
 Rolling of various sections

2 3 4
1

/4> <$> ffi -$ $ <t>

12 13 1
10 11
8 9

Fig. 2.10 : Various stages of rolling and number of pa

converting a steel billet into a round bar
 Types of rolling mills
D i recUon of
Di rnctio11 1 of feed
fee d
► ---ti,.
ID ire ,ction of
feed ---+ · Reverse p ass

"
Work: pie·ce - ----Ill- Firs t pass

(c) 3-High

Two high rolling mill Three high rolling mill

1 .Backu p ro lls ~ . 1

- -, V2 V3

Direc tion of _ ___.,

D irec tion of
fee d
,----L.-------"---'~
c:::~~=•=:::;~=~►==~~~►
fe ed
Work piece

(e ) cluster (e)
(d ) tt -H1
ig h
Tandem rolling mill
Four high Cluster rolling
rolling mill mill
 Types of rolling mills

Universal rolling mill

Planetary rolling mill

 Flat rolling and its analysis

1.
4
T

➢Draft, Δt = t0 – tf
➢Reduction, r = Δt/ t0
➢In metal forming,
Volume of entering metal = volume of exiting metal
𝒕 𝟎 × 𝒘 𝟎 × 𝑳𝟎 = 𝒕 𝒇 × 𝒘 𝒇 × 𝑳𝒇
Flow rate entering = flow rate exiting
𝒕 𝟎 × 𝒘 𝟎 × 𝒗𝟎 = 𝒕 𝒇 × 𝒘 𝒇 × 𝒗𝒇
 Flat rolling and its analysis
➢The amount of slip between the rolls and
workpiece
𝒗𝒇 −𝒗𝒓
𝑺= ……in %
𝒗𝒓
➢The true strain in rolling
𝒕𝟎
𝒆= 𝒍𝒏( )
𝒕𝒇
➢Average flow stress in rolling
𝑲𝒆𝒏
(𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝒏+𝟏
 F

➢Length of contact, 𝑳 = 𝑹∆𝒕

➢𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝝁 =
∆𝒕
𝑹
-I
➢Torque (T) = 𝑭 ×
𝑳
𝟐

∴ ∆𝒕 = 𝝁𝟐 𝑹 ➢Power(P) = - I
𝟐𝝅𝑭𝑳𝑵
𝟔𝟎

➢Roll force, 𝑭 = (𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 𝑳𝒘

 Rolling Forces
• Wlay.s to redl1
1
u1c e rolll ing forc es
1 1 1 1 1

- Taking sm1aller reductiions

- lncreasiing workpiiece tem1perature

- Use of front and/or ba ck tensiio n

1
 Front & Back Tension

<Tb j__ _l_ <Tf

~ '---_u____u_r____ T
b
a~---o
I <l>n I
• I I

I .I I
, -
, -------.._ I i
h 0 /2 ' J_
. h 12 ,.
11T
Vb~•-
l .
- ., , . . . . .. .. .; ,_.
------ - - -- ----- ------
. . . . . , - u,
1 - -~-

Lowers apparent yield strength of material ➔ lowers rol l force

 Rolling Defects
• Roll bending
• Remedy: roll camber

-- - ·- - - - ... _.. - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,I ,
I • I

~ - - - - • ~ • • • - - ,- - - I

-----1--- ► ~-- ------

Cambered Rolls Un Cambered Rolls

 Rolling Defects
• Un-cambered or under-cambered rolls
Un-cambered/Under-cambered Rolls

Residual
l Stresses

c) Centerline Cracking

( , Warping

Edge Wrinkling
 Rolling Defects
• Over-cambered rolls

. Residual
I ) Stresses

(cl Edge Cracking

(d Splitting

Centerline Wrinkling
 Rolling Defects

- Due to elast1iciity of rolls

- Increases roll radiius and hence rolUing force

1

• Rem edly·
1 1

- Choos e rolls w·ith hiigh elastiic m1odulus

1
 Forging
➢Forging is the process of shaping heated metal by
the application of sudden blows or steady pressure
and makes use of the characteristic of plasticity of
the metal.
➢It is done either by hand or machine.
➢Now-a-days forging is an important industrial
process used to make variety of high strength
components for an automobile, aerospace and
other so many applications.
➢E.g. Engine crankshafts, connecting rod, gears, jet
engine and turbine parts, aircraft components, etc.
 Grain Flow Comparison
Figure 14.3 A part made by three different proce es bowing grain flow. (a) ca ting (b) machining,
c) forging . Source: Forging Indu try Association.

a) (b) )
 Types of forging
1. Acco. to working temperature
▪ Hot forging
▪ Cold forging
2. Acco. to method of applying blows
▪ Impact forging
▪ Gradual pressure forging
3. Acco. to degree to which the flow of workpiece is
constrained by dies
▪ Open-die forging
▪ Closed-die or impression die forging
▪ Flashless forging
 Types of forging
Force Force

Upper die
......-Upper die

·'---,.-:.,-:,."!._ Flash
Workpiece
,...._ Lower die (Fixed)

Lower dte (Fixed)

a) Open-die forging b) Clo ed-dle forging

Punch

Ole (Fixed)

c) Flas hless forging

 Open-die forging

.. ··. ·: •· ·
·: .. •.". ·-·. : .. _·: ·

(1) (2) (3)

Upsetting or flat-die forging

Operations performed in open-die forging
F, V

F, V
Upper die

Lower die

(b)
(a)

Fullering Edging
F, V

Dashed lines indicate next compression

Final thickness Starting thickness

t
t -◄-- Intermittent work feed

cogging
(c)
Analysis of open-die forging

(1) (2) (3)

Homogeneous deformation of cylindrical workpiece

 Analysis of open-die forging
➢ The true strain experienced by the workpiece,
𝒉𝟎
𝒆= 𝐥𝐧( )
𝒉
➢ Force required to continue compression of component at
any height,
𝑭 = 𝝈𝒇 × 𝑨
Where, 𝝈𝒇 = flow stress of workpiece material in N/mm2 , A=C/S area of the workpiece in mm2

➢ flow stress,
𝝈𝒇 =𝑲𝒆𝒏
➢ If effect of frictional force is considered,
𝑭 = 𝝈 𝒇 × 𝑨 × 𝑺𝒇 Where, 𝝁=coefficient of friction,
𝟎.𝟒𝝁𝑫 D=diameter of workpiece
➢ 𝑺𝒇 =𝟏 + ….forging shape factor H=height of workpiece
𝒉
 Impression-Die or closed-Die forging
Die

➢It is performed with dies which contain the inverse of

the required shape of the component.
➢In this process, the flash flows beyond the die cavity and
into the small gap between the die plates.
➢As flash is formed during the process, this process is
used to produce more complex components by using
dies.
Comparison between open and closed-die
forging
Sr. Open-die forging Closed-die forging
No.
1. Workpiece is compressed between Workpiece is compressed between
two flat dies. two impressed dies.
2. Cost of die is low Cost of die is high
3. Process is simple Process is complex
4. Poor utilization of the material Better utilization of metal
5. Machining of components is Machining is not required after the
required after the process. process.
6. Dimensional accuracy is not good Dimensional accuracy is good
7. Used for low quantity production Used for high quantity production
8. Suitable for production of simple Suitable for production of simple
components. and complex components.
Forging a connecting rod

( (
 Heading/Upset Forging

_ _ 1•7 n111 _ _

-
......

II ftl

11

(a Heading operation to ~orm head on fa tener sucli a na·I and ri ets. (b) Sequence o
op ration to produce a bolt h ad by heading.
STANDARD TERMINOLOGY IN FORGING
..........,.......
[Functions of flash

The flash serves two purposes;

U per die
►Acts as a 'safety value' for excess metal.
Flash ►Builds up high pressure to ensure that the
gutter
metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.

0 ::::::::::: - ~
~
Flash ½,
l wer die

Remark: It is necessary to achieve complete filling of the forging cavity without

generating excessive pressures against the die that may cause it to fracture.
Example: Die set and forging steps for the manufacturing of an automobile
engine connecting rod

•:•Performing of a round piece in an open die

arrangement.
•:•Rough shape is formed using a block die.
•:•The finishing die is used to bring the part to final
tolerances and surface finish .
•:•Removal of flash (excess metal).
 FORGING – OPERATIONS AND
CLASSIFICATIONS

Forging is a metal working process in which useful

shape is obtained in solid state by hammering or
pressing metal.
1. Upsetting

Steps: (i) (ii) (Hi) Final

Fig 1. Upsetting
 2. Edging

Ends of the bar are shaped to requirement

using edging dies.
EDGING

EiLOWOF
/ >
ATERlAL~
 3. Fullering

Cross sectional area of the work reduces

as metal flows outward, away from centre
FULLERING
4. Drawing
Cross sectional area of the work is reduced
with corresponding increase in length using
convex dies.

Fl
5. Swaging

Cross sectional area of the bar is reduced

using concave dies.
6. Piercing
Metal flows around the die cavity as a moving
die pierces the metal.

PIERCING
1. 2. 3.
 7.
Punching
It is a cutting operation in which a required
hole is produced using a punching die.
Punch

Fig 7. Punching

8. Bending: The metal is bent around a die/anvil.

 Roll forging
➢ In this process, the bar stock is reduced in cross-section or
undergoes change in cross-section when it is passed through
a pair of grooved rolls made of die steel.
➢ This process serves as the initial processing step for forging
of parts such as connecting rod, crank shaft etc.
A particular type of roll forging called skew rolling is
used for making spherical balls for ball bearings

ca:••411;

'
\,,:'Im
c'

,)
';•·:,•,

SKEW ROLLING
 FORGING DEFECTS
The different types of defects, occurring in the
forging operations are as follows:
1. Incomplete die filling.
2. Die misalignment.
3. Forging laps.
4. Incomplete forging penetration- should forge on
the press.
5. Microstructural differences resulting in
pronounced property variation.
6. Hot shortness, due to high sulphur concentration
in steel and nickel.
7.Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring
at high temperature stick on the dies.
8.Buckling, in upsetting forging, due to high
compressive stress.
9.Surface cracking, due to temperature
differential between surface and center, or
excessive working of the surface at too low
temperature.
10. Micro cracking, due to residual stress.
 ical forging defects

p
• Incomplete die filling.
• Die misalignment.
• Forging laps.
• Incomplete forging penetration- should forge on the press.
•
• Micro structural differences resulting in pronounced property variation.
• Hot shortness, due to high sulphur concentration in steel and nickel.

• Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring at high

temperature stick on the dies.
• Buckling, in upsetting forging. Subject to high
compressive stress.
• Surface cracking, due to temperature differential
between surface and centre, or excessive working of
the surface at too low temperature.
• Microcracking, due to residual stress.
Typical forging defects

Cracking at the flash Cold shut or fold

I

17~1
·0w~ ·
Internal crncking

• Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs more often in thin work-pieces. Therefore should
increase the thickness of the flash.
• Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is forced into the work-piece.
• Internal cracking, due to secondary tensile stress.
 Die Design
✓ Must know workpiece material strength and ductility,
deformation rate, temperature sensitivity, frictional
characteristics

✓ Forgeability of materials is capability to undergo

deformation without cracking

✓ Must evaluate shape, size, and complexity of design

✓ Material flows in the direction of least resistance, which

is why intermediate shapes may need to be formed
✓ Preshaping should prevent material from easily
flowing into flash, produce favorable grain flow
patterns, and minimize friction and wear at the die-
workpiece interface

✓ Computers can model and predict material flow

 External and internal draft angles

Flash - - - t - - . . . . .
Gutter ~------+--Rib
· _ _:~---\.......::::=::::i-:::;;ri
Parting ~::s;:;;;;:::::=....___J Web
line Fillet
I
-..------+---Corner
Land Trim line

• Parting lines are usually at the largest cross section

• Flash specifications:
• Flash clearance should be 3% of maximum forging
thickness
• Land that is 2-5 times flash thickness, then a larger
gutter that does not restrict flash flow
•Draft angles are needed (7-10 deg internal, 3-5
external)

• Avoid small radii

• Avoid sharp corners

• Inserts can be used

➢ Die materials must have strength and toughness at
elevated temperatures, hardenability, resistance to
mechanical and thermal shock, wear resistance

➢ Die selection based on size, required properties,

forging temperature, operation type, cost, and
production quantities

➢ Common die materials are tool and die steels with

chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium
➢ Dies are forged from castings, and then machined
and finished as needed, often with heat treatment
to increase hardness and wear resistance

➢ Lubricants act as thermal barriers for hot

workpiece and cooler dies, improve metal flow,
and are parting agents
 Forging Numericals

The true strain for a low carbon steel bar which is doubled in length by forging is

(a) 0.307
(b) 0.5
(c) 0693
(d) 1.0
 G:-i '.:- L C2-)
\ G:-i -= Q•(; '?3 l
The ultimate tensile strength of a material is 400 MPa and the elongation upto
maximum load is 35%. If the material obeys power law of hardening,then the true
stress-true strain relation(stress in MPa) in the plastic deformation range is:

(a) 0 = 540 Eo.3 o

(b) a= 775 c 0 ·30
(c)
a= 540 c 0 ·35
(d)
0 =775 c 0 ·35
 (\~ I Q_ '-)1S

~,-=- ~ C \'\ r)

I
', ~
"'~ (\'to~)

q-i. ~ S¼o t\()..._

..., vck ~,, E- 1 J "'

Po~ Q_,
~~
In open-die forging,a disc of diameter 200 mm and height 60 mm is compressed
without any barreling effect. The final diameter of the disc is 400mm.The true
strain is

(a) 1.986
(b) 1.686
(c) 1.386
(d) 0.602
 .-

1. -

ei9--l~1
- Q L1
000
 Extrusion
➢ It is a compression process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a small opening to produce a
required cross-sectional shape.
➢ Almost any solid or hollow cross section can be
produced by this process.
➢ The products made by extrusion process are tubes,
rods, railings for sliding doors, structural and
architectural shapes, door and window frames etc.
➢ Types of extrusion
1. Acco. to physical configuration
a) Direct (forward) extrusion
b) Indirect (backward) extrusion
2. Acco. to working temperature
a) Hot extrusion
b) Cold extrusion
Direct extrusion(forward extrusion)
DIRECT EXTRUSION DIRECT EXTRUSION
OF HOLLOW PART
HAMBER
JJl lq I 1t( I".
lNK.U 114 ,,
(~ flfl~

WORK E TRUSIO

DUMMY
H MBER BLOK
For solid components For hollow components
Indirect extrusion (backward extrusion)
INDIRECT EXTRUSION INDIRECT EXTRUSION
OF HOLLOW PART

WORK

lllKI:( I In\
Of 110\\
'//Il h-rrrrrTTT777777777TTTTTTTT777TTTTTTTT7777777TTTTn';_ _______;a. )

For solid components For hollow components

Comparison- Direct and indirect extrusion
Sr. No. Direct extrusion Indirect extrusion
1. Solid ram is used. A hollow ram is used
2. Flow of metal and movement of Flow of metal is in opposite
ram is in same direction. direction as the movement of the
ram.
3. Dummy block is used during the A dummy block may be or may not
operation be used.
4. Die mounted on the cylinder or Die is mounted over the bore of the
container ram.
5. Friction problem arises due to There is no friction.
relative motion between the
heated metal billet and cylinder
walls.
6. Large amount of force is required Process does not require large
to move the billet in the cylinder. amount of force.
7. Handling of extruded metal is very Handling of extruded metal is
easy. difficult.
 Analysis of extrusion
➢Extrusion or reduction ratio,
𝑨𝟎
𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒇
➢The true strain in extrusion process,
𝑨𝟎
𝒆 = 𝒍𝒏 (𝒓𝒆 ) = 𝒍𝒏( )
𝑨𝒇
➢Pressure applied by the ram to compress the billet
under ideal conditions,
𝒑 = (𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 × 𝒆 = (𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 × 𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝒆 )
𝑲𝒆𝒏
where, (𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 = =average flow stress
𝒏+𝟏
 Analysis of extrusion
➢Pressure applied by the ram (with considering
friction),
𝟐𝑳
𝒑 = (𝝈𝒇 ) (𝒆𝒙 + )
𝒂𝒗𝒈 𝑫𝟎
Where, ex = extrusion strain = a+b[ln(re)]….Johnson equation
a and b= constants (a=0.8 and b= 1.2 to 1.5)
L = remaining length of billet
D0 = initial diameter of billet
➢Ram force, F= 𝒑 × 𝑨𝟎
➢Power, P= 𝑭 × 𝒗
Where, v = ram velocity in m/sec
 Extrusion Dies
High friction at low
α
α (\_ ____...........

Ram force (F)

High redundant work
at high α
optimum

Die angle

Die angle (α)

Shape factor is defined as the ratio of the pressure required to extrude a cross-
section of a given shape to that required for a round cross-section of the same
area.
𝑪𝒙
-_I
𝑺𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐( )𝟐.𝟐𝟓
𝑪𝒄
Cx= perimeter of extruded cross section
Cc = perimeter of circular cross section of same area

𝒑 = 𝑺𝒇 × (𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 × 𝒆𝒙 ……indirect extrusion

L - - - - - - -_ _ _ _ _JI 𝒑 = 𝝈𝒇
c )𝒂𝒗𝒈
𝟐𝑳
(𝒆𝒙 + 𝑫 )…..direct extrusion
𝟎
 Extrusion
Defects
(a) .(b) (c)

a)Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive tensile

stress at the centre possibly because of high die angle,
low extrusion ratio.
b)Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under direct
extrusion.
c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due to low

extrusion speed and high strain rates.

Metal Flow in Extrusion

➢ Influences quality & mechanical

properties of extruded product
➢ Material flows longitudinally
➢ Elongated grain structure
 Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies.
(a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction or in indirect extrusion.
(b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet–chamber interfaces.
Dead Dead
zone zone
(
:~t
~,.,
~~(
~l
~a
~
.J .
'

~\
(a) (b) (c)
(c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with cooling of the outer regions of the billet in the
chamber. This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength increases rapidly with
decreasing temperature, leads to a defect known as pipe (or extrusion) defect.
 Wire drawing

Undrawn bar
𝑫𝟎 − 𝑫𝒇
Lc
𝟐
α

Lc

➢ During this process, tensile as well as compressive stresses are

induced in the material.
➢ Depending upon the material to be drawn and the amount of
reduction required, total drawing can be accomplished in a single
die or in a series of successive dies.
➢ The die is made up of highly wear resistant material; generally of
tungsten carbide.
 Analysis of wire drawing
𝑨𝟎 −𝑨𝒇
➢ Reduction, 𝒓 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝟎
➢ In ideal condition (no friction), true strain,
𝑨𝟎 𝟏
𝒆= 𝒍𝒏( )=𝒍𝒏( )
𝑨𝒇 𝟏−𝒓

➢ The stress produced by ideal deformation is,

𝑨𝟎
𝝈 = (𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 × 𝒍𝒏( )=(𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 × 𝒆
𝑨𝒇

➢ Practical drawing stress, Undrawn bar

𝝁
𝝈𝒅 = (𝝈𝒇 )𝒂𝒗𝒈 × (𝟏 + ) ×𝝐×𝒆
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶
 Analysis of wire drawing
𝝈𝒅 = draw stress
µ= coe. of friction
α=half die angle Undrawn bar

𝝐= factor for inhomogeneous deformation

𝑫
=𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 +
𝑳𝒄
D=average diameter of workpiece
𝑫𝟎 −𝑫𝒇
=
𝟐
𝑳𝒄 =contact length of workpiece with die
𝑫𝟎 −𝑫𝒇
=
𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏α

➢The drawing force, F=𝝈𝒅 × 𝑨𝒇

➢Power required, 𝑷 = 𝑭 × 𝒗
 Tube drawing
TUBE DRAWING TUBE DRAWING
WITHOUT MANDREL FLOATING MANDREL

MANDREL
FORCE )
~~"7"7'"7'77
Applications of metal forming processes
Sr. Metal forming Applications
No. process
1. Rolling To produce articles like structural sections, sheets,
rails, plates and bars.
2. Extrusion To manufacture rods, tubes, various circular, square,
rectangular, hexagonal rods and tubes both in solid
and hollow form. Also for producing I, Z, T and
other sections.
3. Drawing To produce bright drawn parts, solid drawn tubes,
and for the production of wires. Also for producing
thicker walled seamless tubes and cylinders.
4. Forging To produce components of small tools, rail-road
equipment and automobile and aviation industries.
Also for production of rivets, screws, nuts, axles,
leaf springs, gear blanks, engine housings, valve
bodies, missile components, etc.
Metal Spinning Process
 Latus try
and identify
•k&y
components
here
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I always wondered laow.

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o~are.made ..... JIOW
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uaw•tt_..
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•
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Sheet Metal Working
 Introduction
I
,,,. - I --... -Crank
▪ It is a chipless
\
/
manufacturing
. -H- I
process
▪ Thickness of metal
\ ./
Connecting
rod varies from 0.1 to
Ram Ram 10 mm.
guide

Ram
Punch

Metal sheet

V
(a) Befare bending (b) Bending

Sheet metal working

 Sheet metal working
❑ Advantages
▪ It is associated with press machine on which number of operations
can be performed.
▪ Metal sheets of less thickness can be formed into various shapes.
▪ Low cost components
▪ High production rate
▪ It does not require skilled labour.
❑ Disadvantages
▪ Only used for mass production
▪ Cost of die is high.
▪ High initial cost
▪ Metals of thickness more than 10 mm are difficult to form.
▪ Operation produces more noise and vibrations.
❑ Applications
▪ Press parts used in automobile industry
▪ Vehicle parts like doors, roofs, fuel tanks, front guards, etc.
▪ Aircraft industry, radio and telephone industry, electrical parts, etc.
 Metals used in sheet metal working
Material Applications
1. Black iron Pans, tanks, cabinets, almirahs, stove pipes, etc.
2. Galvanized Storage tanks, buckets, heating ducts, furnces, pans,
iron trunks, etc.
3. Aluminium Aeroplane bodies, kitchenware and cabinets, doors,
windows and building work, electrical appliances,
etc.
4. Copper Radiators of an automobile, heating appliances,
hoods and components in chemical plants
5. Stainless Food storage equipments, dairy equipments, food
processing plant, chemical plant
6. Tin Food containers, cooking oil containers, cans, etc.
 Classification of Press machine
1. According to power source
a) Manually operated
b) Power press- Hydraulic, mechanical press
2. According to type and design of the frame
a) Inclinable frame
b) Group frame
c) Straight side frame
d) Horning press
e) Adjustable bed type press
3. According to actions
a) Single action
b) Double action
c) Tripple action
4. According to the ram driving mechanism
a) Crank press
b) Eccentric press
c) Toggle press
d) Knuckle press
e) Rack and pinion press
f) Hydraulic press
 Classification of Press machine
5. According to the number of drive gears
a) Single drive press
b) Twin drive press
c) Quadruple press
6. According to number of crankshafts
a) Single crank
b) Double crank
7. According to the power transmission method
a) Direct drive press
b) Non geared or flywheel driven press
c) Single drive gear press
d) Double geared drive press
 Main parts of a power press
Clutch and flywheel

➢Base
➢Frame
➢Ram
➢Pitman
Pitman ➢Clutch and flywheel
Ram ➢Bolster plate
Bolster plate
Frame
Base
 Terminology of press working
Ram s lid e
-----
S ha nk --tt------ - -
Ba ck up plate

1 - -- - - P un ch hold e r
uid e post Bus hings ------k=:""i"--r-17777,m7777:i'Jr---r -_r-
L - --. ..--r-
Uf>pe r s i le
P un ch Plate - -•-,...- -~
Pun ch
uid e post - - -
St1 ipp e 1s

Die Block

Bla nk

Die hold e r
1 -- - Bo lste r P late
lowe , s id e)

rra-- Be d or Press
Sheet metal working operations
Sheet metal working
t t
Metal cutting operations Metal forming operations
t
"'
1. Bending
1. Blanking 2. Drawing
2. Punching 3. Embossing
3. Notching 4. Forming
4. Perforating 5. Coining
5. Slitting
6. Lancing
7. Shaving
8. Shearing
9. Nibbling
 Sheet metal working operations
➢Blanking ➢Punching (piercing)
Punch Pun h

Blank falling Waste part Blank falling

Req uired down due to down duet
part gravity gra it

Required part

ef Required part ef Waste part Fig. Blanking and

punching
(b) Punching (Pirecing)
(a) Blanking
 Sheet metal working operations
➢Notching ➢Perforating
Metal sheet

□ □ □ □ □ □ .
□ □ □ □ □ □(
V-nothes
□ □ □ 1::~t);t~Q
➢Slitting ➢Lancing

{_ Slit

C J
.

Strip
 Sheet metal working operations
➢Shaving ➢ Shearing
Punch Punch

.. Die 4---- Die block

 Sheet metal working operations
➢Bending
Punch
Sheet metal
/"" Final component

Die block

Fig. 5.6.11 LI-bending

Punch

Sheet metal

Final component
Die block

Fig. 5.6.12 V-bandin

 Sheet metal working operations
➢Bending

Final
component

metal

Fig. 5.6.13 Angle bending

Curled edge
Final component

Plurtgar
(E"

fll. 1.1.1, CUlllnl

 Sheet metal working operations
➢Drawing
Recess for
placing blank

Drawn cup

Fi . 5.6.15 Drawing

➢Embossing ➢Forming

Pun h

Die block
Final
compon

-- --..____-.........._

Fig. 5.6.16 Embossing

Embossed
component
Fig. 5.6.17 Forming
 Sheet metal working operations
➢Coining

(Blank

/ Final component

I I

Fig. 5.6.18 Coining

➢Deep drawing
Punch

H at d Heat d
pl t cup

Fi . 5.6.19 Deep drawing

 Die classification
1. Based on the types of press operations
i. Shearing operations: Blanking, piercing, shearing, punching,
perforating, notching, trimming, shaving, slitting, parting dies
ii. Bending operations: angle bending, curling, forming, folding,
plunging and reaming dies
iii. Drawing operations: flanging, embossing, bulging and cupping
dies
iv. Squeezing operations: flattering, swaging, coining, sizing,
pressing dies
2. Based on the type of die construction
i. Simple die
ii. Compound die
iii. Combination die
iv. Progressive die
v. Transfer die
vi. Multiple die, etc
 Types of die
Compound Die
Combination Die

------ Blanking Punch

~ Blanking punch 1-------=:...

~ - stripper
Die ring
\
Drawing die

I--~,
Metal plate

I
- Pad

-□- - ~
Drawing die

Progressive Die

Punch Holder - 11r--L-...l...--~--

j ~ iercing punch
Blanking punch _ __.

Strip