ENERGY OF A SYSTEM

Engr. Sarah Grace P. de Castro, ECE

Board of Director, IECEP Laguna Chapter
Board of Director, MRSP Laguna Chapter
Adviser- Mechatronics and Robotics Society of the Philippines LPU-L Student
Chapter
Introduction to Energy

A variety of problems can be solved with Newton’s Laws and

associated principles.
Some problems that could theoretically be solved with
Newton’s Laws are very difficult in practice.
▪ These problems can be made easier with other
techniques.
The concept of energy is one of the most important topics in
science and engineering.
Every physical process that occurs in the Universe involves
energy and energy transfers or transformations.
Analysis Model

The new approach will involve changing from

a particle model to a system model.
These analysis models will be formally
introduced in the next discussions.
Systems

A system is a small portion of the Universe.

▪ We will ignore the details of the rest of the Universe.
A critical skill is to identify the system.
▪ The first step to take in solving a problem is to define
A valid system:
▪ May be a single object or particle
▪ May be a collection of objects or particles
▪ May be a region of space
▪ May vary with time in size and shape
Problem Solving Notes

Categorize step of general strategy

▪ Identify the need for a system approach
▪ Identify the particular system
▪ Also identify a system boundary
▪ An imaginary surface that divides the Universe into the system and
the environment
System Example

A force applied to an object in empty space

▪ System is the object
▪ Its surface is the system boundary
▪ The force is an influence on the system from its
environment that acts across the system
boundary.
Work

The work, W, done on a system by an agent

exerting a constant force on the system is the
product of the magnitude F of the force, the
magnitude Dr of the displacement of the point of
application of the force, and cos q, where q is the
angle between the force and the displacement
vectors.
▪ The meaning of the term work is distinctly
different in physics than in everyday meaning.
▪ Work is done by some part of the environment
that is interacting directly with the system.
▪ Work is done on the system.
Work, cont.

W = F Dr cos q
▪ The displacement is that of the
point of application of the force.
▪ A force does no work on the
object if the force does not
move through a displacement.
▪ The work done by a force on a
moving object is zero when the
force applied is perpendicular
to the displacement of its point
of application.
Displacement in the Work Equation
The displacement is that of the point of application
of the force.
If the force is applied to a rigid object that can be
modeled as a particle, the displacement is the same
as that of the particle.
Work Example

The normal force and the

gravitational force do no work on
the object.
▪ cos q = cos 90° = 0
The force F is the only force that
does work on the object.
More About Work
The sign of the work depends on the direction of the force relative to the
displacement.
▪ Work is positive when projection of F onto Dr is in the same direction
as the displacement.
▪ Work is negative when the projection is in the opposite direction.
The work done by a force can be calculated, but that force is not necessarily
the cause of the displacement.
Work is a scalar quantity.
The unit of work is a joule (J)
▪ 1 joule = 1 newton . 1 meter = kg ∙ m² / s²
▪ J=N·m
Work Is An Energy Transfer

This is important for a system approach to solving a

problem.
If the work is done on a system and it is positive, energy is
transferred to the system.
If the work done on the system is negative, energy is
transferred from the system.
If a system interacts with its environment, this interaction can
be described as a transfer of energy across the system
boundary.
▪ This will result in a change in the amount of energy
stored in the system.
Example 1: Mr. Clean

A man cleaning a floor pulls a vacuum

cleaner with a force of magnitude F=50N at
an angle of 30 degrees with the horizontal.
(Draw the figure). Calculate the work done by
the force on the vacuum cleaner as the
vacuum cleaner is displaced 3m to the right.
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
The scalar product of two vectors is
written as A  B .
▪ It is also called the dot product.
A  B  A B cos q
▪ q is the angle between A and B
Applied to work, this means

W = F Dr cos q = F  D r
 Scalar Product, cont

The scalar product is commutative.

▪ A B = B  A
The scalar product obeys the distributive law of multiplication.
▪ ( )
A  B + C = A B + A  C
Dot Products of Unit Vectors

ˆi  ˆi = ˆj  ˆj = kˆ  kˆ = 1
ˆi  ˆj = ˆi  kˆ = ˆj  kˆ = 0

Using component form with vectors:

A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Azkˆ
B = Bx ˆi + By ˆj + Bzkˆ
A B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

In the special case where

A = B;
A  A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 = A2
Example 2: The Scalar Product
Example 3: Work Done by a Constant Force
 Work Done by a Varying Force

To use W = F Δrcos θ, the force

must be constant, so the
equation cannot be used to
calculate the work done by a
varying force.
Assume that during a very small
displacement, Dx, F is constant.
For that displacement, W ~ F Dx
For all of the intervals,
xf
W   Fx Dx
xi
Work Done by a Varying Force, cont.

Let the size of the small displacements

approach zero .
Since
xf

 F Dx = 
xf
lim
Dx →0 x Fx dx
xi
xi

Therefore,
xf
W =  Fx dx
xi

The work done is equal to the area

under the curve between xi and xf.
Example 4: Calculating Total Work Done from a Graph

A force acting on a particle varies

with x as shown in the figure.
Calculate the work done by the
force on the particle as it moves
from x=0 to x=6.0m.
Work Done By A Spring

A model of a common
physical system for which the
force varies with position.
The block is on a horizontal,
frictionless surface.
Observe the motion of the
block with various values of
the spring constant.
Spring Force (Hooke’s Law)

The force exerted by the spring is

Fs = - kx
▪ x is the position of the block with respect to the equilibrium position (x = 0).
▪ k is called the spring constant or force constant and measures the stiffness of the
spring.
▪ k measures the stiffness of the spring.

This is called Hooke’s Law.

Hooke’s Law, cont.

The vector form of Hooke’s Law is

Fs = Fx ˆi = −kx ˆi
When x is positive (spring is
stretched), F is negative
When x is 0 (at the equilibrium
position), F is 0
When x is negative (spring is
compressed), F is positive
 Work Done by a Spring
Assume the block undergoes an arbitrary displacement from x = xi to x = xf.
The work done by the spring on the block is
1 2 1 2
( −kx ) dx = kxi − kxf
xf
Ws = 
xi 2 2
▪ If the motion ends where it begins, W = 0
Spring with an Applied Force

Suppose an external agent, Fapp,

stretches the spring.
The applied force is equal and opposite
to the spring force.
( )
Fapp = Fapp ˆi = −Fs = − −kx ˆi = kx ˆi

Work done by Fapp as the block moves

from –xmax to x = 0 is equal to
-½ kx2max
For any displacement, the work done
by the applied force is
1 2 1 2
( kx ) dx =
xf
Wapp =  kxf − kxi
xi 2 2
Kinetic Energy

One possible result of work acting as an influence on a

system is that the system changes its speed.
The system could possess kinetic energy.
Kinetic Energy is the energy of a particle due to its motion.
▪ K = ½ mv2
▪ K is the kinetic energy
▪ m is the mass of the particle
▪ v is the speed of the particle
A change in kinetic energy is one possible result of doing
work to transfer energy into a system.
Kinetic Energy, cont

Calculating the work:

 F dx = 
xf xf
Wext =  ma dx
xi xi
vf
Wext =  mv dv
vi

1 1
Wext = mv f − mv i2
2

2 2
Wext = K f − K i = DK
 Example 5: Measuring k for a spring
A common technique used to measure
the force constant of a spring is
demonstrated in the setup (a). The spring
is hung vertically and an object of mass
m is attached to its lower end. Under the
action of the “load” mg, the spring
stretches a distance d from its
equilibrium position (b).
a) If a spring is stretched 2cm by a
suspended object having a mass of
.55kg, what is the force constant of
the spring?
b) How much work is done by the spring
on the object as it stretches through
this distance?
Seatwork
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem states Wext = Kf – Ki = ΔK

When work is done on a system and the only change in the system is in
its speed, the net work done on the system equals the change in
kinetic energy of the system.
▪ The speed of the system increases if the work done on it is positive.
▪ The speed of the system decreases if the net work is negative.
▪ Also valid for changes in rotational speed
The work-kinetic energy theorem is not valid if other changes (besides its
speed) occur in the system or if there are other interactions with the
environment besides work.
The work-kinetic energy theorem applies to the speed of the system, not
its velocity.
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem – Example

The block is the system and three

external forces act on it.
The normal and gravitational forces
do no work since they are
perpendicular to the direction of the
displacement.
Wext = DK = ½ mvf2 – 0
The answer could be checked by
modeling the block as a particle
and using the kinematic equations.
Potential Energy

Potential energy is energy determined by the configuration of

a system in which the components of the system interact by
forces.
▪ The forces are internal to the system.
▪ Can be associated with only specific types of forces
acting between members of a system
Gravitational Potential Energy

The system is the Earth and

the book.
Do work on the book by lifting
it slowly through a vertical
displacement.
D r = ( y f − y i ) ˆj

The work done on the system

must appear as an increase
in the energy of the system.
The energy storage
mechanism is called potential
energy.
Gravitational Potential Energy, cont

Assume the book in fig. 7.15 is allowed to fall.

There is no change in kinetic energy since the book starts and ends at rest.
Gravitational potential energy is the energy associated with an object at a
given location above the surface of the Earth.

( )
Wext = Fapp  D r

Wext = (mgˆj)  ( y f − y i ) ˆj

Wext = mgy f − mgy i
Gravitational Potential Energy, final

The quantity mgy is identified as the gravitational potential

energy, Ug.
▪ Ug = mgy
Units are joules (J)
Is a scalar
Work may change the gravitational potential energy of the
system.
▪ Wext = DUg
Potential energy is always associated with a system of two
or more interacting objects.
Gravitational Potential Energy, Problem Solving

The gravitational potential energy depends only on the

vertical height of the object above Earth’s surface.
In solving problems, you must choose a reference
configuration for which the gravitational potential energy is
set equal to some reference value, normally zero.
▪ The choice is arbitrary because you normally need the
difference in potential energy, which is independent of
the choice of reference configuration.
Often having the object on the surface of the Earth is a
convenient zero gravitational potential energy
configuration.
The problem may suggest a convenient configuration to use.
Elastic Potential Energy

Elastic Potential Energy is associated with a spring.

The force the spring exerts (on a block, for example) is Fs = - kx
The work done by an external applied force on a spring-block
system is
▪ W = ½ kxf2 – ½ kxi2
▪ The work is equal to the difference between the initial and
final values of an expression related to the configuration of
the system.
Elastic Potential Energy, cont.

This expression is the elastic

potential energy:
Us = ½ kx2
The elastic potential energy can be
thought of as the energy stored in
the deformed spring.
The stored potential energy can be
converted into kinetic energy.
Observe the effects of different
amounts of compression of the
spring.
Elastic Potential Energy, final

The elastic potential energy stored in a spring is zero

whenever the spring is not deformed (U = 0 when x = 0).
▪ The energy is stored in the spring only when the spring is
stretched or compressed.
The elastic potential energy is a maximum when the spring
has reached its maximum extension or compression.
The elastic potential energy is always positive.
▪ x2 will always be positive.
Energy Bar Chart Example

An energy bar chart is an important graphical representation of information

related to the energy of a system.
▪ The vertical axis represents the amount of energy of a given type in the
system.
▪ The horizontal axis shows the types of energy in the system.
In a, there is no energy.
▪ The spring is relaxed, the block is not moving
Energy Bar Chart Example, cont.

Between b and c, the hand has done work on the system.

▪ The spring is compressed.
▪ There is elastic potential energy in the system.
▪ There is no kinetic energy since the block is held steady.
Energy Bar Chart Example, final

In d, the block has been released and is moving to the right while still in contact
with the spring.
▪ The elastic potential energy of the system decreases while the kinetic energy
increases.
In e, the spring has returned to its relaxed length and the system contains only
kinetic energy associated with the moving block.
Internal Energy

The energy associated with an object’s

temperature is called its internal
energy, Eint.
In this example, the surface is the
system.
The friction does work and increases
the internal energy of the surface.
When the book stops, all of its kinetic
energy has been transformed to
internal energy.
The total energy remains the same.
Conservative Forces

The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving

between any two points is independent of the path taken by
the particle.
The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving
through any closed path is zero.
▪ A closed path is one in which the beginning and ending
points are the same.
Examples of conservative forces:
▪ Gravity
▪ Spring force
Conservative Forces, cont

We can associate a potential energy for a system with any

conservative force acting between members of the system.
▪ This can be done only for conservative forces.
▪ In general: Wint = - DU
▪ Wint is used as a reminder that the work is done by one member of
the system on another member and is internal to the system.

▪ Positive work done by an outside agent on a system

causes an increase in the potential energy of the system.
▪ Work done on a component of a system by a
conservative force internal to an isolated system causes
a decrease in the potential energy of the system.
Non-conservative Forces

A non-conservative force does not satisfy the conditions of

conservative forces.
Non-conservative forces acting in a system cause a change
in the mechanical energy of the system.
Emech = K + U
▪ K includes the kinetic energy of all moving members of
the system.
▪ U includes all types of potential energy in the system.
Non-conservative Forces, cont.

The work done against

friction is greater along the
brown path than along the
blue path.
Because the work done
depends on the path, friction
is a non-conservative force.
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy

Define a potential energy function, U, such that the work

done by a conservative force equals the decrease in the
potential energy of the system.
The work done by such a force, F, is
xf
Wint =  Fx dx = −DU
xi

▪ DU is negative when F and x are in the same direction

Conservative Forces and Potential Energy

The conservative force is related to the potential energy

function through.
dU
Fx = −
dx
The x component of a conservative force acting on an object
within a system equals the negative of the potential energy
of the system with respect to x.
▪ Can be extended to three dimensions
Conservative Forces and Potential Energy – Check

Look at the case of a deformed spring:

dUs d 1 
Fs = − = −  kx 2  = −kx
dx dx  2 

▪ This is Hooke’s Law and confirms the equation for U

U is an important function because a conservative force can
be derived from it.
Energy Diagrams and Equilibrium

Motion in a system can be observed in terms of a graph of its position

and energy.
In a spring-mass system example, the block oscillates between the
turning points, x = ±xmax.
The block will always accelerate back toward x = 0.
Energy Diagrams and Stable Equilibrium

The x = 0 position is one of stable

equilibrium.
▪ Any movement away from this
position results in a force
directed back toward x = 0.
Configurations of stable equilibrium
correspond to those for which U(x)
is a minimum.
x = xmax and x = -xmax are called the
turning points.
Energy Diagrams and Unstable Equilibrium

Fx = 0 at x = 0, so the particle
is in equilibrium.
For any other value of x, the
particle moves away from the
equilibrium position.
This is an example of
unstable equilibrium.
Configurations of unstable
equilibrium correspond to
those for which U(x) is a
maximum.
Neutral Equilibrium

Neutral equilibrium occurs in a configuration when U is

constant over some region.
A small displacement from a position in this region will
produce neither restoring nor disrupting forces.
Potential Energy in Molecules

There is potential energy associated

with the force between two neutral
atoms in a molecule which can be
modeled by the Lennard-Jones
function.   12  
6
   
U ( x ) = 4    −   
 x   x  

Find the minimum of the function (take

the derivative and set it equal to 0) to
find the separation for stable
equilibrium.
The graph of the Lennard-Jones
function shows the most likely
separation between the atoms in the
molecule (at minimum energy).