1

Introduction

Foundations of Computer Science  Cengage

1.1 Learning
 Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be
able to:
 Define the Turing model of a computer.
 Define the von Neumann model of a computer.
 Describe the three components of a computer: hardware,
data, and software.
 List topics related to computer hardware.
 List topics related to data.
 List topics related to software.
 Discuss some social and ethical issues related to the use of
computers.
 Give a short history of computers.

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 1-1 TURING MODEL

• The idea of a universal computational device

was first described by Alan Turing in 1937.
• He proposed that all computation could be
performed by a special kind of a machine, now
called a Turing machine.
• He based the model on the actions that people
perform when involved in computation.
• He abstracted these actions into a model for a
computational machine that has really changed
the world.

1.3
 Data processors
• Before discussing the Turing model, let us define a
computer as a data processor. Using this definition, a
computer acts as a black box that accepts input data,
processes the data, and creates output data (Figure 1.1).
• Although this model can define the functionality of a
computer today, it is too general.
• In this model, a pocket calculator is also a computer
(which it is, in a literal sense).

Figure 1.1 A single purpose computing machine

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 Programmable data processors
• The Turing model is a better model for a general-
purpose computer.
• This model adds an extra element to the specific
computing machine: the program.
• A program is a set of instructions that tells the
computer what to do with data.

Figure 1.2 A computer based on the Turing model

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 Figure 1.3 The same program, different data
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 Figure 1.4 The same data, different programs
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 The universal Turing machine
A universal Turing machine
• a machine that can do any computation if the
appropriate program is provided
• It was the first description of a modern computer.
• It can be proved that a very powerful computer and a
universal Turing machine can compute the same thing.
• We need only provide the data and the program—the
description of how to do the computation—to either
machine.

In fact, a universal Turing machine is capable of

computing anything that is computable.

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 1-2 VON NEUMANN MODEL

• Computers built on the Turing universal

machine store data in their memory.

• Around 1944–1945, John von Neumann

proposed that, since program and data are
logically the same, programs should also be
stored in the memory of a computer.

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 Four subsystems
Computers built on the von Neumann model divide the
computer hardware into four subsystems: memory,
arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and input/output.

Figure 1.5 The von Neumann model

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 The stored program concept

• The von Neumann model states that the program

must be stored in memory.
• This is totally different from the architecture of early
computers in which only the data was stored in
memory: the programs for their task was
implemented by manipulating a set of switches or
by changing the wiring system.
• The memory of modern computers hosts both a
program and its corresponding data. This implies
that both the data and programs should have the
same format, because they are stored in memory. In
fact, they are stored as binary patterns in
memory—a sequence of 0s and 1s.

1.11
 Sequential execution of instructions
• A program in the von Neumann model is made of a
finite number of instructions.
• In this model, the control unit fetches one
instruction from memory, decodes it, then executes
it.
• In other words, the instructions are executed one
after another. Of course, one instruction may
request the control unit to jump to some previous or
following instruction, but this does not mean that
the instructions are not executed sequentially.
• Sequential execution of a program was the initial
requirement of a computer based on the von
Neumann model. Today’s computers execute
programs in the order that is the most efficient.

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 1-3 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

We can think of a computer as being made up of

three components:
1. computer hardware
2. data, and
3. computer software.

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 Computer hardware
Computer hardware today has four components
under the von Neumann model, although we can
have different types of memory, different types of
input/output subsystems, and so on. We discuss
computer hardware in more detail in Chapter 5.

Data
The von Neumann model clearly defines a computer
as a data processing machine that accepts the input
data, processes it, and outputs the result.

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 Computer software
• The main feature of the Turing or von Neumann
models is the concept of the program. Although
early computers did not store the program in the
computer’s memory, they did use the concept of
programs.
• Programming those early computers meant
changing the wiring systems or turning a set of
switches on or off.
• Programming was therefore a task done by an
operator or engineer before the actual data
processing began.

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 Figure 1.6 Program and data in memory

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 Figure 1.7 A program made of instructions

1.17
 1-4 HISTORY

In this section we briefly review the history of

computing and computers. We divide this
.
history into three periods

1.18
 Mechanical machines (before 1930)
During this period, several computing machines were
invented that bear little resemblance to the modern
concept of a computer.

 In the 17th century, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician

and
philosopher, invented Pascaline.

 In the late 17th century, a German mathematician called

Gottfried Leibnitz invented what is known as Leibnitz’ Wheel.

The first machine that used the idea of storage and

programming
was the Jacquard loom, invented by Joseph-Marie
Jacquard at the beginning of the 19th century.

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  In 1823, Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine.
Later, he invented a machine called the Analytical Engine
that parallels the idea of modern computers.
 In 1890, Herman Hollerith, working at the US Census
Bureau, designed and built a programmer machine that
could automatically read, tally, and sort data stored on
punched cards.

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 The birth of electronic computers (1930–1950)
Between 1930 and 1950, several computers were
invented by scientists who could be considered the
pioneers of the electronic computer industry.

Early electronic computers

The early computers of this period did not store the
program in memory—all were programmed externally.
Five computers were prominent during these years:
 ABC
 Z1
 Mark I.
 Colossus
 ENIAC

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 Computers based on the von Neumann model
The first computer based on von Neumann’s ideas was
made in 1950 at the University of Pennsylvania and was
called EDVAC. At the same time, a similar computer
called EDSAC was built by Maurice Wilkes at Cambridge
University in England.

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 Computer generations (1950–present)
Computers built after 1950 more or less follow the von
Neumann model. They have become faster, smaller, and
cheaper, but the principle is almost the same. Historians
divide this period into generations, with each generation
witnessing some major change in hardware or software
(but not in the model).

First generation

The first generation (roughly 1950–1959) is

characterized by the emergence of commercial
computers.

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 Second generation
Second-generation computers (roughly 1959–1965)
used transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Two high-
level programming languages, FORTRAN and COBOL
invented and made programming easier.

Third generation
The invention of the integrated circuit reduced the
cost and size of computers even further.
Minicomputers appeared on the market. Canned
programs, popularly known as software packages,
became available. This generation lasted roughly
from 1965 to 1975.

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 Fourth generation
The fourth generation (approximately 1975–1985) saw
the appearance of microcomputers. The first desktop
calculator, the Altair 8800, became available in 1975.
This generation also saw the emergence of computer
networks.

Fifth generation

This open-ended generation started in 1985. It has

witnessed the appearance of laptop and palmtop
computers, improvements in secondary storage media
(CD-ROM, DVD and so on), the use of multimedia, and
the phenomenon of virtual reality.

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 1-5 SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

Computer science has created some

peripheral issues, the most prevalent of which
can be categorized as:
•social issues
•ethical issues.

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 Social issues
Computers have created some arguments. We introduce
some of these arguments here.
1. Dependency
Some people think that computers have created a kind
of dependency, which makes people’s lives more
difficult.
2. Social justice
Social justice is another issue we often hear about.
The advocates of this issue argue that using
computers at home is a luxury benefit that not all
people can afford. The cost of a computer, peripheral
devices, and a monthly charge for Internet access is
an extra burden on low-income people.
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 3. Digital divide

The concept of digital divide covers both the issues of

dependency and social justice discussed above. The
concept divides society into two groups: those who
are electronically connected to the rest of society and
those who are not.

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 Ethical issues
Computers have created some ethical issues. We
introduce some of these here.

1. Privacy
Computers allow communication between two parties
to be done electronically. However, much needs to be
done to make this type of communication private.
Society is paying a big price for private electronic
communication. Network security may create this type
of privacy, but it needs effort and costs a lot.

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 2. Copyright
Another ethical issue in a computerized society is
copyright: who owns data? The Internet has created
opportunities to share ideas, but has also brought
with it a further ethical issue: electronic copyright.

3. Computer crime
Computers and information technology have created new
types of crime. Hackers have been able to access many
computers in the world and have stolen a lot of money.
Virus creators design new viruses to be sent through the
Internet and damage the information stored in computers.
Although there are many anti-virus programs in use today,
society is paying a big price for this type of crime, which
did not exist before the computer and Internet era.
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 1-6 COMPUTER SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE

• With the invention of computers, a new discipline

has evolved: computer science.

• Like any other discipline, computer science has

now divided into several areas. We can divide
these areas into two broad categories:
• systems areas
• applications areas.

This book is a breadth-first approach to all these

areas. After reading the book, the reader should
have enough information to select the desired
area of specialty.
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 1-7 OUTLINE OF THE COURSE

After this introductory chapter, the book is divided

into five parts.

Part I: Data representation and operation

This part includes Chapters 2, 3, and 4. Chapter 2
discusses number systems; how a quantity can be
represented using symbols. Chapter 3 discusses how
different data is stored inside the computer. Chapter 4
discusses some primitive operations on bits.

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 Part II: Computer hardware
This part includes Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 5 gives a
general idea of computer hardware, discussing different
computer organizations. Chapter 6 shows how
individual computers are connected to make computer
networks and internetworks (internets).

Part III: Computer software

This part includes Chapters 7, 8, 9 and 10. Chapter 7
discusses operating systems. Chapter 8 shows how
problem solving is reduced to writing an algorithm for
the problem. Chapter 9 takes a journey through the list
of contemporary programming languages. Chapter 10 is
a review of software engineering.

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 Part IV: Data organization and abstraction
Part IV includes Chapters 11, 12, 13 and 14. Chapter 11
discuss data structures, collecting data of the same or
different type under one category. Chapter 12 discusses
abstract data types. Chapter 13 shows how different file
structures can be used for different purposes. Chapter 14
discusses databases.

Part V: Advanced topics

This part covers Chapters 15, 16, 17 and 18. Chapter 15
discusses data compression. Chapter 16 explores
some issues to do with security. Chapter 17 discusses
the theory of computation. Chapter 18 is an
introduction to artificial intelligence, a topic with day-to-
day challenges in computer science.
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