FAULT AND SHEAR ZONE ANALYSIS

Practical Analysis of Fault and Shear Zone Systems

in the Context of Mineral Exploration and Mining
Table of Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................1

2 Characterisation of Faults and Shears ...........................................................................................3

2.1 Types of Faults and Fault Terminology.....................................................................................3
2.2 Reverse/Contraction Faults ......................................................................................................5
2.3 Normal/Extension Faults ...........................................................................................................7

3 Fault Movement Sense .....................................................................................................................9

3.1.1 Slickenlines and Fault Steps ......................................................................................11
3.1.2 Fault Splay Asymmetries Within Fault Zones ............................................................16
3.1.3 Extension Fractures ...................................................................................................17

4 Magnitude of Fault Movement .......................................................................................................19

4.1 Displacement Variation within Individual Faults ......................................................................19
4.2 Fault Terminations ..................................................................................................................19
4.3 Fault Thickness.......................................................................................................................20
4.4 Fault Length ............................................................................................................................20

5 References .......................................................................................................................................21

Fault and Shear Zone System Analysis

List of Figures

Figure 1_1 – Change in fault character as a function of depth 2

Figure 2.1_1 – Fault terminology for structures viewed in secton 3
Figure 2.1_2 – Terminology associated with an oblique fault plane 3
Figure 2.1_3 – Block diagrams showing different fault styles 4
Figure 2.2_1 – Thrust geometries resulting in uplift of the hangingwall block 5
Figure 2.2_2 – Terminology for simple thrust geometry 5
Figure 2.2_3 – Ramp geometries and terminology for a thrust system 6
Figure 2.2_4 – Terminology for a ductile thrust system 6
Figure 2.3_1 – Extension faults resulting in downthrow of the hangingwall block 8
Figure 2.3_2 – Formation of a rollover antiform above a curved fault surface 8
Figure 2.3_3 – Regional-scale extension on resulting in tilted asymmetric hangingwall blocks 8
Figure 3_1 – Apparent movement sense across a fault 10
Figure 3_2 – Apparent displacement of carbonate veins 11
Figure 3.1.1_1 – Diagram to illustrate the relationship between fibre growth and fault steps and the sense of movement
accommodated on the fault 12
Figure 3.1.1_2 – Relationships between fault movement, slickenlines and fault steps 12
Figure 3.1.1_3 – Fault surface exposed in the Chatree Mine in central Thailand 13
Figure 3.1.1_4 – Subhorizontal Slickenlines and fault steps marked by quartz fibres 13
Figure 3.1.1_5 – Myriad of slickenline orientations exposed in the Bouder-Lefroy Fault 14
Figure 3.1.1_6 – Strongly curved quartz fibre orientations exposed on the surface of a fault 14
Figure 3.1.1_7 – Subhorizontal Slickenlines developed on a fault surface at Chatree Mine in Central Thailand 15
Figure 3.1.1_8 – Slickenlines developed on a clast from a quartz vein from the Carnage deposit in the Eastern
Goldfields, Western Australia 15
Figure 3.1.1_9 – Well developed slickenlines developed as cm-scale grooves on a quartz vein surface at the Carnage
deposit, Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia 16
Figure 3.1.2_1 – Relationship between fault splay asymmetries and movement sense 16
Figure 3.1.2_2 – A fault zone comprising several discrete morphologies 17
Figure 3.1.3_1 – Various forms of extension fractures 18
Figure 4.1_1 – Fault displacement contours for a fault that has evolved from several smaller structures 19

Fault and Shear Zone System Analysis

1 INTRODUCTION
There are numerous good papers and books illustrating the character and dynamics of
faults. This module of the course lists the basics of fault systems and is intimately linked to
other modules that discuss shear sense, tectonic environments and deformation
partitioning. As such, only the fundamentals are given here but these will be referred to
throughout the course when discussing the other modules. This module looks at the
characteristics of faults such as their morphology, terminology, and movement sense
criteria and provides an introduction to the module Structural and tectonic settings, which
focuses on faults and shears in the context of structural and tectonic environments.

To list all of the features of faults would be well beyond the scope of this course. However,
a number of fundamental aspects of fault and shear systems must be appreciated, and will
be discussed throughout the course.

Fault and shear systems are dynamic. They are continually evolving or being
modified and are variably active throughout their life

Faults and shears are a response to rock deformation and volume problems. They
vary from simple systems comprising a single structure, through to complex linked
structures comprising structures of variable size, displacement and movement
sense.

Fault systems are scale-independent. Many of the geometries noted at the
microscale translate to those observed at the macroscale.

Faults begin and end, and may ‘die’ over time as deformation is accommodated on
other structures or ceases. The geometry of individual faults varies from simple to
complex, and can display marled changes in plan and section.

Faults are integral in the transport of fluids and the localisation of sites of mineral
deposition. A dynamic relationship exists between faults and orebodies – faults may
localise mineralisation or progressively dismember it.

The distinction between faults and shears is commonly subjective. Faults are typically
associated with brittle deformation whereas shears result from ductile deformation. This
distinction is not depth dependent as there is no clear change from brittle to ductile
behaviour with increasing depth. Likewise, the brittle-ductile transition is a broad zone,
ranging from 7 to 12km (Figure 1_1).

Within the brittle-ductile transition, the response of a rock to deformation by either faulting
or shearing can be a function of:-

Rocktype

Water content of the rock

Phyllosilicate content

Strain rate

Pre-existing structures

Grainsize etc

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 All of these factors must be kept in mind when analysing a fault or shear system, and these
topics will be revisited during the course.

Figure 1_1
Change in fault character as a function of depth

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2 CHARACTERISATION OF FAULTS AND SHEARS
2.1 Types of Faults and Fault Terminology
Faults involve the movement of one block of rock against another. For cases where the
fault is inclined, the overlying block is termed the hangingwall block and the underlying
block the footwall block. The hangingwall block may slide laterally (strike-slip) or up or
down (dip-slip) past the footwall block. Faults commonly accommodate movement in both
plan and section, and are termed oblique faults in this case.

This terminology is shown in Figures 2.1_1, 2.1_2 and 2.1_3.

Figure 2.1_1
Fault terminology for structures viewed in section

Figure 2.1_2
Terminology associated with an oblique fault plane

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 Figure 2.1_3
Block diagrams showing different fault styles

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2.2 Reverse/Contraction Faults
These are produced during a deformation regime that involves contraction (shortening).
The principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are subhorizontal and σ3 is subvertical. The hangingwall
block moves up relative to the footwall block. Movement may be directly up the dip of the
fault (dip-slip) or oblique.

These faults include low-angle structures that are typically referred to as thrusts
(Figure 2.2_1). Thrust faults are found in most compressional tectonic regimes. Although
the complete fault geometry is not commonly exposed, the geologist should be aware of
the geometric consequences of thrusting and the recognition of its effects on map patterns.

Figure 2.2_1
Thrust geometries resulting in uplift of the hangingwall block

Thrust faults in low grade metamorphic rocks have a staircase geometry, comprising long,
bedding-parallel zones on which movement is accommodated. These are termed flats
and are separated by short, steeper-angled thrusts or ramps (Figure 2.2_2).

Figure 2.2_2
Terminology for a simple thrust geometry

Thrust fault systems can have quite complex three-dimensional geometries, including frontal
ramps (perpendicular to the movement direction), lateral ramps (parallel to the movement
direction), and oblique ramps (oblique to the movement direction) (Figure 2.2_3).

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 Figure 2.2_3
Ramp geometries and terminology for a thrust system

At higher metamorphic grades, compressional deformation commonly produces folding

and cleavage development in association with thrusting. In such cases a staircase
trajectory may not develop and the thrust may have a smooth geometry (Figure 2.2_4).
Under such conditions, duplexing becomes more common, and roof and floor thrusts
enclose numerous curviplanar linking thrusts. These thrusts completely surround relatively
less deformed thrust horses. The overall geometry is like a large-scale S-C fabric.

Figure 2.2_4
Terminology for a ductile thrust system

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 Some relationships associated with thrusts include:

Thrusts disrupt stratigraphy and structurally place older rocks on top of younger ones

Thrusts move progressively up section and affect progressively younger rocks. The
exception is when they cut across strata that has already been folded.

Movement is normal to frontal ramps in the thrust fault

Movement is normal to folds produced over frontal ramps or propagation folds
formed above the thrust tip line

Movement is parallel to lateral ramps

Folds will initially form parallel to the thrust fault but progressive deformation may
then rotate them into parallelism with the transport direction

Data to be collected when examining thrust fault geometries include:

Orientations of the fault and any lineations on the fault planes

What the fault rocks are comprised of. Are there different rocks in the hangingwall
as compared to the footwall?

What is the shape of the fault – planar or curved?

How wide is the fault?

What is the sense of movement on the fault?

What is the relationship of the fault to other faults? Are there any cross-cutting
geometries or other relative age relationships?

Is there any associated folding?

How has strain been partitioned? Are there zones of preferentially developed
cleavage and folding? Where are these located relative to the thrusts?

2.3 Normal/Extension Faults

These are produced during a deformation regime that involves extension. The principal
stresses are oriented as follows: σ1 is subvertical and σ2 are σ3 are subhorizontal. The
hangingwall block moves down relative to the footwall block. Movement may be directly
down the dip of the fault (dip-slip) or oblique. Extension faults may be planar
(Figure 2.3_1) or listric (Figure 2.3_2). Extension faults may comprise linked systems,
typically with an overall asymmetric architecture (Figure 2.3_3).

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 Figure 2.3_1
Extension faults resulting in downthrow of the hangingwall block

Figure 2.3_2
Formation of a rollover antiform above a curved fault surface

If this fault is curved in the third dimension it is referred to as a listric fault.

Figure 2.3_3
Regional-scale extension resulting in tilted asymmetric hangingwall blocks

Features to document when examining extension fault geometries include:-

Orientations of the fault and any lineations on the fault planes

What the fault rocks are comprised of. Are there different rocks in the hangingwall
as compared to the footwall?

What is the shape of the fault – planar or curved?

How wide is the fault?

What is the sense of movement on the fault?

What is the relationship of the fault to other faults? Are there any cross-cutting
geometries or other relative age relationships?

Is there any associated folding?

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3 FAULT MOVEMENT SENSE
For this portion of the course only brittle faults are considered. The determination of the
sense of movement on ductile structures is covered in another module. Resolving the
sense of movement on a fault is fundamental to understanding a mineralised system.
Given the dominant role that faults play in focusing fluids and controlling the deposition of
mineral species, an understanding of the movement history of faults over time (i.e.
kinematics) is essential. Exploration models become increasingly more useful and
predictive when the movement history of faults can be incorporated into the geological
history. Similarly, an understanding of the architecture of existing resources can be
enhanced if the movement history of faults is integrated with the paragenetic history.

The resolution of the movement history of a fault relies on the recognition and correct
interpretation of kinematic indicators. Kinematic indicators are geometric relationships
associated with faults that allow us to interpret how portions of a rock mass have moved
relative to other portions.

A number of structural criteria are commonly utilised to determine the sense of shear on
faults. These include:-

Displacement and deflection of markers

Fault steps

Extension fractures

The direction of movement on a fault is usually assumed to lie subparallel to synchronously

formed linear structural elements such as striations, slickenlines, or slickenfibres. This
lineation represents the tectonic transport direction and the sense of shear is
resolved by interpreting the geometry of kinematic indicators in a section parallel to
the lineation and preferably in a plane at a high angle to the fault plane.

The importance of determining the transport direction and utilising this information in
conjunction with the kinematic criteria listed cannot be emphasised strongly enough.
Figures 3_1 and 3_2 illustrate how the wrong sense of shear can be interpreted if the
movement vector is not identified.

Caution: Some movement senses may be apparent only.

Figure 3_2 shows several carbonate veins that appear to be segments that originally
comprised a single vein. However, these represent carbonate infill of brittle extensional
openings and the movement sense on structures between veins is the opposite of that
required for displacement. This is analogous to the displacements seen on transform
faults across spreading ridges.

Figure 3_1
Apparent movement sense across a fault

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 Schematic representation illustrating how the deflection of a geological marker can give the wrong sense of shear if the shear
zone is not viewed in a section parallel to the movement direction. The movement direction is shown as the lineation on the
fault surface and represents the movement vector. This vector shows that the block at the back has moved up and to the
right (dextrally). Erosion of both blocks to the same ground level shows an apparent sinistral deflection of the marker horizon
across the fault in plan view, when the movement in that plane has actually been oblique and incorporated dextral movement
in plan view.

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 Figure 3_2
Apparent displacement of carbonate veins

Photograph of carbonate veins exposed underground at the Callie mine, Northern Territory, which illustrate how apparent
displacements can lead to the wrong interpretation of movement sense on a structure.

3.1.1 Slickenlines and Fault Steps

Slickenlines and fault steps are features that develop on the individual fault and shear
planes. Fibre growth is commonly represented and occurs at a low angle to these planes
(Figures 3.1.1_1, 3.1.1_2, 3.1.1_3 and 3.1.1_4). This occurs due to incremental
opening/slip on the faults and is analogous to the quartz fibre growth. Caution needs to
be exercised when interpreting sllickenline orientations as individual slip planes
comprising the fault can develop their own slickenlines with different orientations
(Figures 3.1.1_5 and 3.1.1_6). This is because portions of the fault undergo
differential amounts and orientations of movement in an effort to accommodate the
strain. Figures 3.1.1_7, 3.1.1_8, and 3.1.1_9 are examples of slickenlines.

Slickenfibres are found on fault surfaces that have been exposed by erosion or mining.
The crystals on the fault surface grow at a low angle to the fault plane they tend to break
off either along the fibres or at a high angle to them. This produces a stepped fault surface
that can be used to determine movement sense. By running your fingers along the
direction of the fibres you will find that the fault surface is smoothest in the direction of
relative movement of the missing block.

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 Figure 3.1.1_1
Diagram to illustrate the relationship between fibre growth and fault steps and the sense of
movement accommodated on the fault

Figure 3.1.1_2
Relationships between fault movement, slickenlines and fault steps

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 Figure 1.1.9_3
Fault surface exposed in the Chatree Mine in central Thailand

The slickenlines are subhorizontal and the fault steps define subvertical lines marked by quartz fibres. The geometry of the
steps indicate that the block as viewed moved to the left.

Figure 3.1.1_4
Subhorizontal slickenlines and fault steps marked by quartz fibres

The geometry of the steps indicates that the block as viewed moved to the left.

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 Figure 3.1.1_5
Myriad slickenline orientations exposed in the Boulder-Lefroy Fault

The exposure is in the Jubilee pit, Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia. Photo courtesy of Gerard Tripp.

Figure 3.1.1_6
Strongly curved quartz fibre orientations exposed on the surface of a fault

The sample is from the Porphyry pit on the Zuleika Shear, Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia.
Photo courtesy of Gerard Tripp.

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 Figure 3.1.1_7
Subhorizontal slickenlines developed on a fault surface at Chatree Mine in central Thailand

Fault steps are weakly developed and indicate that the block as viewed moved to the right.

Figure 3.1.1_8
Slickenlines developed on a clast from a quartz vein from the Carnage deposit in the
Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia

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 Figure 3.1.1_9
Well developed slickenlines developed as cm-scale grooves on a quartz vein surface at the
Carnage deposit, Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia

3.1.2 Fault Splay Asymmetries Within Fault Zones

Figure 3.1.2_1
Relationship between fault splay asymmetries and movement sense

Sketch of a fault zone comprising major subparallel structures bounding linking structures that lie at an oblique angle. The
asymmetry of the faults is analogous to that seen in ductile systems. Local concentration of strain can produce cataclastic
zones containing clays and rock fragments with fabric geometries analogous to asymmetric foliation geometries noted in
ductilely deformed rocks. These geometries mimic those of the fault splays.

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 Figure 3.1.2_2
A fault zone comprising several discrete morphologies

Two forms of cataclasite are evident as grey material at left and likely represent two separate stages of fault development.
Sigmoidal foliations wrap asymmetric clasts in the cataclasite and define a sinistral sense of shear as viewed. Ductilely
deformed gneissic basement material at right contained foliations exhibiting the same geometry. The sample is from a major
fault exposed in the Krumovgrad region of southern Bulgaria.

Note: Bookshelf type sliding can occur on internal fault splays producing shear
displacement antithetic to that operating on the overall shear zone. Subordinate
fault splays that link the first order splays may switch sense of shear again.
Therefore it is important to assess the whole zone, especially any bounding
features, and to look for other movement sense criteria as well. However, the
offset indicated by fault plane asymmetry can still be used in terms of strain field
geometries at the scale of the individual fault segment.

3.1.3 Extension Fractures

Extension fractures occur in a number of forms and are shown in Figure 3.1.3_1. If the
fractures are crescent-shaped they are concave in the direction of motion of the missing
block.

Striated secondary fractures also develop in conjunction with extension fractures. These
fractures cut down into the fault surface in the direction of the missing block. Fracturing of
the acute wedge of rock between the secondary shear and the fault surface produces
steps in the fault surface that face in the direction of movement of the missing fault blocks.
The steps may be predominantly linear or they may be lunate.

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 Figure 3.1.3_1
Various forms of extension fractures

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4 MAGNITUDE OF FAULT MOVEMENT
4.1 Displacement Variation within Individual Faults
Faults displacements vary in the plane of both extensional and contractional faults.
Idealised fault geometries show displacement contours to be elliptical and the amount of
displacement to diminish to zero at the fault tip line.

A consequence of the combined effects of variable fault displacement and the evolution of
faults by the growth of segments, is that the final fault geometry may show displacement
magnitudes that increase and decrease along the strike of the fault. The recognition of
several intervals of displacement value increase and decrease along a single fault is
evidence that the fault has evolved via linkage (Figure 4.1_1).

Figure 4.1_1
Fault displacement contours for a fault that has evolved from several smaller structures

4.2 Fault Terminations

Every fault surface, no matter what its type, must come to an end in every direction. The
end of the fault is termed the termination line and, where the fault termination is not caused
by running into another fault the termination line coincides with the tip line. The termination
of the fault at the earth’s surface is termed the fault trace. At the brittle-ductile transition
the displacement discontinuity is accommodated by the flow of surrounding rocks in a
ductile manner.

Faults of all types commonly die out in a set of splay faults, which are smaller subsidiary
faults that break off the main fault. Each splay will accommodate a portion of the
deformation transferred from the main fault and each splay will have its own termination
line. Where the splays break off at regular intervals they will comprise an imbricate fan,
which may be extensional or contractional depending on which side of the main fault the
imbricate splays break off. Such geometries are commonly referred to as horsetails and
the curvature of the imbricate fault splays allows a change in the movement vector e.g. a
strike-slip fault will progressively change to accommodating increasing amounts of dip-slip.

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4.3 Fault Thickness
It is important to be specific about what is being measured in terms of fault thickness.
Faults commonly comprise portions of a larger population of structures defining a fault
system. Hence, although the individual displacement on a structure may be small, the sum
of displacements over all the faults belonging to the same population may be large.

A common phenomenon is that structures that appear as discrete faults may actually
comprise several different styles of deformation and ages of faulting. For example, a fault
may possess a damage zone represented by a halo of fractured rock that decreases in
intensity away from the fault. Furthermore, internal partitioning of the deformation may
result in the formation of discrete high-strain zones within a distinct differently textured
zone of relatively lesser strain.

Previous workers (e.g. Watterson (1986) and Walsh and Watterson (1988) have attempted
to quantify the relationship between maximum width of a fault and the amount of
displacement. They suggested that there is a non-linear increase in fault width with total
displacement. Features that complicate the formulation of such a model include:-

Accurate determination of the width of the fault

Where the amount of displacement is measured as this will vary across the fault plane

Accurate determination of features that pertain to one fault set only and not to those
resulting from subsequent reactivation

Dissolution of material, which may decrease fault width

Progressive dismemberment of the fault zone e.g. ‘faulting out’ of part of the fault
zone as it moves from ductile to brittle conditions

Barriers to faulting

Fault linkage in 3D

Proximity to neighbouring faults

Variation in rock properties adjacent to the fault.

4.4 Fault Length

The relationship between fault length and magnitude of displacement is much easier to
quantify than that between fault thickness and magnitude of displacement. A proportional
relationship has been established between fault length (L) and the amount of maximum
fault displacement (d) and can be stated as d ∝ Ln. For a linear displacement-length
relationship, n = 1. Features that complicate the application of this model include:-

Accurate determination of the length of the fault

Where the amount of displacement is measured as this will vary across the fault
plane, and the model applies to the greatest amount of displacement

Accurate determination of features that pertain to one fault set only and not to those
resulting from subsequent reactivation

Barriers to faulting

Fault linkage in 3D

Fault displacement profiles

Variation in rock properties adjacent to the fault.

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5 REFERENCES
Walsh, J., Watterson, J., 1988. Analysis of the relationship between displacements and
dimensions of faults. Journal of Structural Geology 10, 239-247.

Watterson, J., 1986. Fault dimensions, displacements and growth. Pure and Applied
Geophysics 124, 365-373.

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