GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES IN

DRILL-CORE
Diamond-Core Orientation Methods and the
Measurement of Geological Structures in
Oriented Diamond-Core
Table of Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................1

2 Core Orientation ................................................................................................................................2

2.1 Procedures................................................................................................................................2
2.2 Ezy-Mark® ................................................................................................................................2
2.3 Ballmark® .................................................................................................................................3
2.4 Spear.........................................................................................................................................3
2.5 Comments on core orientation methods...................................................................................7
2.6 Core Orientation Line ................................................................................................................7

3 Measurement and Description of Structural Features ................................................................11

3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................11
3.2 Measurement of Geological Features using the Alpha-Beta-Gamma (α-β-γ) Method ...........13
3.2.1 Angle to Core Axis (alpha - α)....................................................................................14
3.2.2 Rotation angle (beta – β) ...........................................................................................14
3.2.3 Measuring linear structures in drill core .....................................................................15

4 Conclusions.....................................................................................................................................17

Geological Structures in Core

List of Figures

Figure 2.2_1 – Photograph of the Exy-Mark® system 2

Figure 2.2_2 – Marking the orientation line with the Ezy-Mark® system 2
Figure 2.3_1 – The Ballmark® system 3
Figure 2.4_1 – Orienting core using a spear 4
Figure 21.4_2 – High Quality Orientation Mark at Edge of Core 4
Figure 2.4_3 – Useless Mark near Centre of Core 4
Figure 2.4_4 – Orientation Mark that has Skidded towards the Centre of the Core 5
Figure 2.4_5 – Smearing out of orientation mark due to dropping the spear from too high in the hole 5
Figure 2.4_6 – Core broken by spear impact 6
Figure 2.4_7 – Several spear impact marks due to the spear being dropped too high and bouncing across the core 6
Figure 2.4_8 – Suspicious core orientation mark 7
Figure 2.6_1 – Reassembling core for marking and orienting 8
Figure 2.6_2 – Core match across a break due to drill-induced grinding 8
Figure 2.6_1 – Transferring the Orientation Mark to the Side of the Core 10
Figure 2.6_2 – Drawing the Orientation line in a V-Rail 10
Figure 3.1_1 – Example of Core Orienting Frame 11
Figure 3.1_2 – Example of Core Orienting Frame with undesirable magnetic components 12
Figure 3.1_3 – Figure to show the large error magnetic components can induce on compass measurements 12
Figure 3.2_1 – Marking the Trace and Down-hole Apex of a Vein in Drill Core 13
Figure 3.2.1_1 – Measurement of Angle to Core Axis – Alpha - α 14
Figure 3.2.2_1 – Measurement of Beta Angle - β 15
Figure 3.2.3_1 – Diagram showing how to measure a linear feature in drill-core using the reference line method 16

Geological Structures in Core

1 INTRODUCTION
Considerable, valuable structural geological information can be gained by geologists from
oriented drill-core. This data can be used to enhance geological models and provide
parameters for resource estimation. All too often, however, structural data gathered from
oriented drill-core is inaccurate, not taken in correct geological context or not used at all.

Before an oriented diamond drilling program is commenced the geologists first need to
decide the purpose of the program. For example, if the prospect has no outcrop and no
previous structural information available, then it may be decided that every diamond-hole
initially should be oriented. When enough quality data has been obtained it may be
deemed necessary to only orient drill-holes in areas of the prospect that have no structural
data. In areas of good outcrop, it may be deemed necessary to only orient a portion of the
drill-holes as good structural information is already available.

It is much more preferable to obtain a modest amount of quality structural data than large
amounts of data that may be inaccurate or not in the correct geological context.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 1

2 CORE ORIENTATION
2.1 Procedures
For the true orientation of geological structures to be determined from the core, the
orientation of the core before it was removed from the ground must be known. The down-
hole survey data provides the plunge and plunge-direction (azimuth) of the axis of the core,
but additional information is required to fully orientate the cylinder of core.

Several mechanical devices are available to determine the bottom of the core in inclined
drill holes. These include the down-hole spear, Ezy-Mark® and Ballmark® systems.
Industry standard is now becoming Ezy-Mark® and Ballmark® because the spear method
is generally considered more inaccurate than these newer methods.

The frequency of orientation marks will usually be every 6m if the drill rig is completing 6m
core runs. If the drill-rig is completing 3m core runs and very accurate structural data is
required, orientation marks could be taken every 3m.

2.2 Ezy-Mark®
The Ezy-Mark® system is one of a number of proprietary core-stub template tools. The tool
is lowered down the hole and the three free balls find their position at the bottom of the tool
(Figure 2.2_1). When the tool reaches the core stub at the bottom of the hole, a number of
spring-loaded steel pins take an impression of its shape. One of the pins is substituted for a
wax pencil which makes an independent mark on the core. The action of pulling the tool from
the hole locks the steel pins in the shape of the core stub, and locks the three weights which
record the bottom of the hole. When the next run of core is drilled and pulled from the ground
the template pins and pencil mark can be matched to the core end. Then a line is drawn
along the core that matches the alignment of the three locked balls. This tool is very effective
and generally quite accurate because it has three independent indicators that combine to
give bottom of hole. Failed orientations can also be quickly identified.

Figure 2.2_1
Photograph of the Exy-Mark® system

Figure 2.2_2
Marking the orientaton line with the Ezy-Mark® system

Geological Structures in Core Page: 2

2.3 Ballmark®
The Ballmark® system uses the action of the inner tube back end during core breaking,
which transfers load to the outer tube via compression of a spring (Figure 2.3_1). The
system indents a previously aligned soft metal disc, using a ceramic ball. In angled holes
gravity causes this free-running metal ball to be positioned at the lowest point in its track,
which is the bottom side of the hole and consequently the bottom of the core. By breaking
the core after the drill-string has stopped rotating an indentation is created on the soft
metal disc. This mark is then transposed on to the core, resulting in relatively accurate
core orientation. See video at http://www.accu-dril.com/products_ballmark2.htm.

Figure 2.3_1
The Ballmark® system

2.4 Spear
The down-hole spear is the simplest device for orienting core. It consists of a heavy steel
spear with a sharp point or a wax-pencil tip (Figure 2.4_1). After the inner tube is removed,
the spear is lowered on a wire-line inside the drill rods. This hits the bottom of the hole
producing a mark on the next piece of rock to be cored (Figures 2.4_2, 2.4_3, 2.4_4). The
heavy spear slides along the bottom of the rods and the mark or chip on the core will
identify the bottom edge of the core.

Although the spear orientation device is very simple, several points need to be observed to
achieve good results:

The drill-bit must be on the bottom of the hole. The geologist must verify that this
procedure is being followed.

The tip must be firmly screwed into the spear to prevent it and the spear from
bending. A bent spear tip will produce inaccurate results.

The spear should be lowered so that it produces a single punch mark. If it is lowered
too slowly it will fail to produce a mark and if it is lowered too fast the spear may
bounce producing multiple marks or streaked lines (Figure 2.4_4). The correct speed
will be dependent on the angle of the hole and the hardness of the rock and can only
be determined by trial and error.

The spear should be connected directly to the wire-line. No additional rods should
be screwed into the spear to increase its weight and it should not be used with the
overshot.

Best results are obtained in drill holes with plunges between 35° and 75°. The depth
of the hole should not significantly affect the quality of the marks.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 3

 Figure 2.4_1
Orienting core using a spear

The spear is lowered inside the rods after the core barrel has been extracted.

Figure 2.4_2
High Quality Orientation Mark at Edge of Core

Figure 2.4_3
Useless Mark near Centre of Core

This situation commonly occurs when the drill-bit is not at the bottom of the hole.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 4

 When the core orientation is performed correctly the mark or chip should be within 2 or 3
millimetres of the edge of the core (Figure 2.4_2) and within five degrees of the true bottom
edge of the hole. When the drill bit is not on the bottom of the hole, a mark will be
produced towards the centre of the core (Figure 2.4_3).

Other unusable marks are created when the spear is dropped from too high, which results
in smearing of the crayon or impact mark across the core (Figure 2.4_4) or producing a
mark that is far too big (Figure 2.4_5). Dropping the spear from too high can also have the
effect of shattering the core and rendering the marks unusable (Figure 2.4_6). In very hard
rock the spear may bounce across the core surface, resulting in several marks
(Figure 2.4_7) or a smeared line.

Figure 2.4_4
Orientation Mark that has Skidded towards the Centre of the Core

This situation may occur if the spear has been dropped with too much velocity, or the rock is very hard, or the core stub is
broken at a low angle to the core axis and the break dips away from the bottom of hole.

Figure 2.4_5
Smearing out of orientation mark due to dropping the spear from too high in the hole

Geological Structures in Core Page: 5

 Figure 2.4_6
Core broken by spear impact

Note the driller’s initials on the block at the depth where the orientation was taken. This allows the geologist to identify the
driller in question and query him as to any perceived problems with core orientation.

Figure 2.4_7
Several spear impact marks due to the spear being dropped from too high and bouncing across the core

A degree of experience is necessary when assessing orientation marks. For example,

some may appear very good but may in fact arouse suspicion (e.g. Figure 2.4_8).

Geological Structures in Core Page: 6

 Figure 2.4_8
Suspicious core orientation mark

The orientation mark in the photo should be treated with suspicion because it appears a little too ‘perfect’ in terms of shape
and position and may have been forged by the driller.

2.5 Comments on core orientation methods

All three methods discussed above can produce reasonable results. However, the
EzyMark® and Ballmark® systems are considered to be the most accurate and reliable
because most of the human and other errors involved in producing orientation marks are
eliminated. Although these systems may cost more than the spear system, RSG Global
believes they are the best for accurate oriented diamond-core programs.

2.6 Core Orientation Line

Before marking up core for the measurement of structures it has to be reassembled
(Figure 2.6_1). This needs to be done diligently as it highlights things such as core loss
and whether or not orientation marks can be accepted. In areas where it is important to
obtain orientation data the core may have to be glued to produce a coherent interval. Core
breaks should be assessed on an individual basis as some apparently good contacts can
be the result of grinding induced during drilling (Figure 2.6_2).

By drawing a line along the bottom of the core, which joins the individual BOH marks, we
are able to provide an “orientation line” from which the true orientation of the planar and
linear structures in the drill core can be determined. The accuracy of the orientation line
is critical to the quality of the orientation measurements. If the orientation line is not
correct all measurement made relative to the line are inaccurate and the data collected will
be incorrect and misleading.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 7

 Figure 2.6_1
Reassembling core for marking and orienting

Core needs to be carefully reassembled prior to marking up. This may even require gluing together of core fragments
in critical areas.

Figure 2.6_2
Core match across a break due to drill-induced grinding

The photo shows a perfect match between pieces of adjacent core. However, this is due to grinding and accurate reassembly
is not possible.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 8

 Since each orientation mark has an unknown accuracy, it can only be accepted if it
correlates with one and preferably two or more other orientation marks. To make an
orientation line we reconstruct the core between the orientation marks in a V-rail (angle-
iron). The procedure to follow is (a set of rules for marking orientation lines is also provided
in Appendix 1):-

Try to find, as close to the start of the hole as possible, two (preferably three) high
quality orientation marks in a row where the core can be joined together.

Place a small pencil mark (not artliner or paint pen) on the side of the core where the
interpreted bottom of the hole is. This is done by taking the estimated bottom of hole
and lining it up in a straight line with the centre of the core (Figure 2.6_3).

Starting with the mark “up the hole”, place the core in the V-rail so that when you
hold a pen to it, the pen is horizontal (Figure 2.6_4).

The core should be laid out in the v-rack with “down the hole” to the right
(Figure 2.6_4) and from the top to bottom. Carefully piece the core tightly together.
Where the core is broken a reasonable effort should be made to reassemble it.
Gluing the smaller pieces of core together may be useful.

Core blocks should be left in the tray and a small mark made on the core where the
block belongs. Thus any confusion as to where the core should go back in the tray
can be avoided.

When a V-track is filled carefully mark the reference line onto the end of the last
piece (making sure the pen is horizontal). Transfer to next “V-rail” making sure the
mark is horizontal to the pen.

Continue until 2 or 3 runs are laid out. If three runs are laid out, 4 orientation marks
can be compared.

Check the correlation between the orientation marks. Generally, you will find by
“playing with any loose connections” that good quality orientation marks can be
made to match (within ± 15°).

For an orientation line to be commenced two and preferably three orientation marks
must be aligned within 15°. These aligned marks may straddle a poor quality mark,
which may not be aligned if the core can be confidently reconstructed through the
poor orientation mark.

When it is determined that the orientation marks are reliably aligned a reference line
can be drawn on the core joining the marks. Always draw the line from the known to
the unknown!

The orientation line can be continued up and down the core from the starting line
until either the core cannot be reconstructed or the marks are consistently greater
than 15° away from the line. At this point a new line must be started. The line may
be extended up to several metres past the last orientation mark provided that the
core can be confidently reconstructed. The points at which an orientation line is
stopped and the reason for the termination should be recorded on the orientation
record form. A single reference line may be extended for many tens of metres in
competent well-oriented core.

High quality orientation marks, where two or more ories match well should be
marked with a solid line and designated HC (high-quality) on the logging
spreadsheet. Core that is unable to be oriented, or poorly oriented, should be
marked with a different coloured, dotted line for cutting.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 9

 Figure 2.6_3
Transferring the Orientation Mark to the Side of the Core

Figure 2.6_4
Drawing the Orientation line in a V-Rail

The correct way to position core in V-rail with orientation mark parallel to edge with a pen held horizontal to the edge of the V-
rail. The pen should be kept horizontal when drawing the reference line.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 10

3 MEASUREMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURAL FEATURES
3.1 Introduction
It is important for the geologist to assess what structural information is required from each
drill-hole before beginning any measurement of structures. It is the common experience of
RSG Global that too many structural measurements of unimportant features are taken by
geologists. This can be a huge waste of time and can lead to a “swamping” of the critical
data by less important data. Again, RSG Global emphasises that it is much more
important to gather modest amounts of quality structural data than large amounts of poor
quality or geologically unconstrained data.

There are two main methods by which the geologist can measure structures in oriented
drill-core. The first involves the use of a “rocket launcher” or core frame (Figure 3.1_1).
This method allows the geologist to place the stick of core in the exact orientation it was
before being drilled. The geological structures are then measured as if in the field, with a
compass. The other, method involves measuring angles of structures (alpha, beta &
gamma) in the core and converting these to true orientation through trigonometric
calculations. For well constrained structural measurements in correct geological context,
RSG Global recommends the core frame method. The alpha, beta, gamma method is
most time effective and useful for collecting large amounts of geotechnical data.

Figure 3.1_1
Example of Core Orienting Frame

Example of a simple but effective core orienting frame. The triangular chock is free-moving and can be moved backwards or
forwards to give the desired plunge. The hole azimuth is duplicated by rotating the whole apparatus.

Note: A number of sites have constructed their own core orienting frames. While these are
mechanically sound and can place the core in the desired orientations, a large number possess
magnetic materials such as steel screws and hinges (Figures 3.1_2 and 3.1_3) , and hence
measurements taken by compass will be affected, leading to datasets of questionable quality.
Core orienting frames must possess no magnetic material.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 11

 Figure 3.1_2
Example of Core Orienting Frame with undesirable magnetic components

An example of a simple core orienting frame that would be effective but for the magnetic material used. The yellow pencil
magnet demonstrates the use of magnetic nails and bolts. The effects of this magnetic material on a compass is shown in
Figure 3.1_3.

Figure 3.1_3
Figure to show the large error magnetic components can induce on compass measurements

The white oval drawn on the compass shows the marked variation on the compass needle orientation depending on proximity
to the metal bolt shown in the right-hand photo in Figure 3.1_2. When the compass is adjacent to the bolt the needle points
toward 300º. Away from the influence of the bolt the needle points toward 330º.

Geological structures in drill core are divided into planar and linear groups. Planar
structures include bedding, foliations, veins, joints and faults. Linear structures include fold
axes (hinges), intersection lineations, stretching (extension) lineations and slickenlines. All
planar structures can be measured using either method. However, only linear structures
that occur on exposed breaks in the core can be measured with the alpha-beta-gamma
method. Non-penetrative linear structures such as fold hinges and elongate boudins can
only be measured using a core frame.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 12

 A spreadsheet for recording structural data from oriented diamond drill-core is provided in
Appendix 2. Besides the structural measurements, other critical data that should be
recorded include (c.f. Appendix 2) those listed below. These data are recorded in the
structural log so that filtering of the data is a simple process. In addition, a spreadsheet for
the conversion of alpha-beta-gamma data into dip and dip direction (planar structures) and
plunge and azimuth (linear structures) is provided in Appendix 2.

The down-hole depth of the midpoint of the structure

The structural domain the structure occurs in. This will be different for each
orebody, but could include, for example, domains such as footwall, main-shear and
hanging-wall.

The lithology that hosts the structure.

The type of structure. Instead of for example just “vein” being recorded, textural
features such as whether it is a shear-vein or an extension-vein should be recorded.
For example SV for shear vein and EV for extension vein. Other textural features, if
considered important could be recorded in a separate texture column e.g. colliform-
crustiform, comb, laminated.

The paragenetic stage (e.g. 1, 2, 3 etc) of the structure and minerals in it or
associated with it.

The minerals that fill the structure or occur in its selvage.

The shear-sense should be recorded across any structures where that information is
available (e.g. reverse, normal, sinistral, dextral or oblique e.g. sinistral-reverse).

3.2 Measurement of Geological Features using the Alpha-Beta-Gamma (α-β-γ) Method

To determine the true orientation of a planar geological feature we first need to take
measurements of that feature in relation to the core axis (Alpha angle) and the bottom of
the hole reference line (Beta angle). Using the down-hole survey of the drill-hole and
trigonometric calculations we can then convert these measurements to give the feature its
true orientation (Appendix 2).

Before attempting to measure the Alpha and Beta angles, it is a good idea to follow the
trace of the feature with a chinagraph pencil (Figure 3.2_1). A planar feature in core has an
elliptical trace on the surface of the core (TOF), except when it is at 900 to the core axis
and then the trace is circular.

Figure 3.2_1
Marking the Trace and Down-hole Apex of a Vein in Drill Core

Geological Structures in Core Page: 13

3.2.1 Angle to Core Axis (alpha - α)
The alpha angle is defined as the acute (i.e. <900) angle of the plane of the feature to the
core axis (Figure 3.2.1_1). It is measured using a protractor to the nearest degree by
following the steps (Figure 3.2.1_1):-

1. Lying the core on its side and rotating the core until the “maximum” amount of the
trace of the feature (TOF) is visible
2. Placing the centre of the protractor on the TOF with the “fixed arm” parallel to the
core axis.
3. Swing the “moveable arm” so that the top edge is parallel to the TOF.
4. Read the measurement from above the “moveable arm”. This is always recorded as
a two digit number e.g. 07 not 7.

Figure 3.2.1_1
Measurement of Angle to Core Axis – Alpha - α

3.2.2 Rotation angle (beta – β)

The Beta angle is defined by measuring the rotation angle between the orientation line and
the down-hole apex of the trace of the feature (TOF) (Figure 3.2.2_1). It is measured by
following these steps:

1. Holding the core, looking down the hole, mark the centre of the down hole apex of
the TOF with a straight line.
2. Using a ring or a plastic “wrap around” protractor fit it over or wrap it around the core
so that it reads clockwise when looking down the hole.
3. Ensure that 000° on the protractor is aligned with the reference line.
4. Reading clockwise, when looking down the hole, read the angle from the reference
line to the down-hole apex to the nearest degree. This is always recorded as a three
digit number with eg 056° not 56°.

Note the value is dependent on the strict adherence to point 4. Different size protractor is
used for each different core size as there is a difference between NQ and NQ2, HQ and
HQ2.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 14

 Figure 3.2.2_1
Measurement of Beta Angle - β

3.2.3 Measuring linear structures in drill core

Linear structures include fold axes (hinges), intersection lineations, stretching
(extension) lineations and slickenlines.

To measure linear features in drill-core, we can use the reference line method for
structures that lie on an exposed surface (Figure 3.2.3_1). This method requires that the
plane is measured first using alpha-beta. We can then measure the linear feature,
denoted by gamma γ Gamma is measured in the following way:-

Identify the lower (downhole) part of drill-core that shows the plane that contains the
linear feature.

Draw a reference line that connects the downhole and uphole apexes of the planar
structure that contains the linear feature.

Draw a line along the linear feature, preferably passing through the centre of the
core.

With a protractor, measure the angle from the reference line (not the orientation

line!) to the linear feature in a clockwise direction. This is gamma γ.

The actual plunge and azimuth of the linear feature are then calculated using trigonometric
methods in an excel spreadsheet (Appendix 2). You should also record the minerals that
define the slickenline, and the movement sense across the structure where possible
(.e.g. reverse, normal, dextral, sinistral or oblique, such as reverse-sinistral).

Geological Structures in Core Page: 15

 Figure 3.2.3_1
Diagram showing how to measure a linear feature in drill-core using the reference line method

Geological Structures in Core Page: 16

4 CONCLUSIONS
It is recommended that initially a core frame/rocket launcher is used for the measurement
of structures in oriented core at the start of each individual project. This permits direct
visualization of the structures in their original orientations. If a considerable amount of data
is required quickly, the alpha-beta-gamma method can be used. If using the alpha-beta-
gamma method, it is a good idea to also have a core frame so that structures can be
visualized, non-penetrative linear features can be measured and checks on the alpha-beta-
gamma measurements can be made. Again, we emphasize that modest amounts of
good quality data are much better than large amounts of inaccurate or poorly
constrained data.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 17

Appendix 1
Rules for Core Orientation Lines

Always lay out 3 runs of core (18m) so that four orientation marks can be lined up.

Line up the orientation marks just above the bottom edge of the V-rail.

All breaks in the core must be tightly locked. If unsure, check with a geologist.

Check the correlation between the orientation marks. Generally, you will find that good quality
orientation marks can be made to match (within ± 15°).

For an orientation line to be commenced at least two and preferably three orientation marks
must be aligned within 15°. These aligned marks may straddle a poor quality mark, which
may not be aligned, if the core can be confidently reconstructed through the poor orientation
mark.

When it is determined that the orientation marks are reliably aligned a solid reference line can
be drawn on the core joining the marks to designate this as a high-confidence orientation
line.

It is preferable to use the bottom edge of the V-rail to guide the pen when marking the
orientation line, rather than a ruler.

If the orientation marks do not line up, we use a dashed line to designate this as not
oriented. In this case the line is simply used for cutting purposes.

Record on the orientation sheet which orie marks were used (good) and which ones did not
line up and were not used. In this way, a record of the orientation marks is kept for future
reference.

Cut the core just to one side of the orientation line such that the orientation line is preserved in
the pieces of core that will remain in the tray.

Geological Structures in Core Page: 1