Human Reproduction
Human reproduction involves several key events such as gametogenesis,
insemination, fertilization, blastocyst formation, implantation,
gestation, and parturition. These reproductive events occur after
puberty.
Significant anatomical and physiological differences exist between male
and female reproductive systems, such as ongoing sperm formation in
men and ovum formation ceasing in women around the age of fifty
years.
Male reproductive system
● Located in pelvic region; includes testes, accessory ducts, glands, and the external
genitalia
● Testes are located in scrotum (a pouch outside the abdominal cavity); maintain 2-2.5°C
lower than the normal internal body temperature necessary for spermatogenesis; oval-
shaped; contain around 250 compartments called testicular lobules
● Testicular lobule - 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules for sperm production
● Seminiferous tubules - two types of cells are present: male germ cells (spermatogonia)
and Sertoli cells
● Male germ cells - undergo meiotic divisions; produce sperm; Sertoli cells provide
nutrition to germ cells
● Interstitial spaces outside seminiferous tubules contain small blood vessels and Leydig
cells (interstitial cells); produce androgens
● Accessory ducts: rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct
● Seminiferous tubules connect to vasa efferentia via rete testis; vasa efferentia connect
to epididymis; epididymis leads to vas deferens, ascends to abdomen and loops over the
urinary bladder; vas deferens receives a duct from seminal vesicle, opens into the urethra
as ejaculatory duct; ducts store and transport sperm from testis to outside through
urethra; urethra originates from urinary bladder, extends through penis to external
opening called urethral meatus
● Penis - male external genitalia, aids erection for insemination
● Glans penis - enlarged end of penis; covered by loose fold of skin, the foreskin
● Male accessory glands - paired seminal vesicles, a prostate, and paired bulbourethral
glands; secretion of bulbourethral glands contribute to penis lubrication
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Human Reproduction
Female reproductive system
● Located in pelvic region; includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix,
vagina and the external genitalia
● Ovaries - primary female sex organ; produce ovum and various ovarian hormones;
located on each side of lower abdomen; connected to pelvic wall and uterus; covered by
thin epithelium; contains ovarian stroma; divided into two zones peripheral cortex &
inner medulla
● Accessory ducts - includes oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus, and vagina
● Fallopian tube - approx 10-12 cm long; extends from periphery of ovary to uterus
● Infundibulum - funnel-shaped part of the fallopian tube; closer to ovary, with finger like
projections - fimbriae for collecting the ovum; leads to wider ampulla, and isthmus, has
a narrow lumen and joins the uterus
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Human Reproduction
● Uterus - known as womb; inverted pear shape; ligaments provide support to the uterus;
opens into vagina through narrow cervix and the cervical canal, along with the vagina
forms the birth canal
● Uterine wall - three layers: external perimetrium, middle myometrium (smooth muscle)
and inner endometrium (glandular layer)
● Endometrium - undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle; myometrium-
exhibits strong contractions during delivery of the baby
● Female external genitalia - include mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and
clitoris; mons pubis - fatty tissue cushion covered by skin and pubic hair; labia majora -
fleshy folds of tissue; extend from mons pubis; surround the vaginal opening; labia
minora - paired folds of tissue located under the labia majora
● Hymen - membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening; can be torn during the first
coitus or by other activities like sports or tampon use
● Clitoris - small finger-like structure located on labia minora above the urethral opening
● Mammary glands - characteristic of all female mammals; paired structures; referred as
breasts; consist of glandular tissue and variable amount of fat; has 15-20 mammary lobes;
contain cluster of cells called alveoli
● Alveoli - secrete milk, stored in its cavities; open into mammary tubules, which join to
form mammary ducts, multiple mammary ducts converge to form mammary ampulla
● Mammary ampulla connects to lactiferous duct, from which milk is sucked out
Gametogenesis
● Process of gamete formation by testis and ovary
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Human Reproduction
Spermatogenesis/ Oogenesis
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Human Reproduction
Structure of sperm
● Microscopic structure with head, neck, middle piece, and tail
● Head - contains an elongated haploid nucleus; anterior portion - covered by the
acrosome, filled with enzymes essential for fertilization of the ovum
● Middle piece - has numerous mitochondria producing energy for the movement sperm
● Among 200 to 300 million sperms for normal fertility at least 60% must have normal shape
and size; at least 40% displaying vigorous motility
● Epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, and prostate involved in maturation and
motility of sperms
● Seminal plasma + sperms = semen
● Functions of male sex accessory ducts and glands regulated by androgens
Menstrual cycle
● Reproductive cycle in female primates, including humans
● Menarche - first menstruation at puberty
● Menstruation occurs at an average interval of about 28/29 days; entire cycle from one
menstruation to the next - menstrual cycle
● Ovulation - one ovum is released during the middle of each menstrual cycle
● Lasts for 3-5 days; menstrual flow due to the breakdown of the endometrial lining
● Follicular phase - growth of primary follicles in ovary and regeneration of endometrium;
influenced by changes in pituitary and ovarian hormones like LH and FSH
● Ovulation marked by rupture of graafian follicle and release of the ovum; occurs in
middle of the menstrual cycle, triggered by LH
● Luteal phase - remaining part of the graafian follicle transforms into the corpus luteum
(secretes progesterone)
● Progesterone - maintain endometrium for possible implantation and pregnancy
● Menopause - cease menstrual cycle around 50 years of age
Developing ovarian follicles
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Human Reproduction
Fertilization and implantation
● During copulation, semen released in vagina, motile sperm swim through the cervix,
uterus, and ampullary region of the fallopian tube
● Fertilization occurs when ovum and sperm reach ampullary region simultaneously and
fuse; not all copulations lead to fertilization
● Sperm meets zona pellucida layer of the ovum; induce changes that block entry of
additional sperm
● Acrosome helps to enter ovum through zona pellucida and the plasma membrane; results
in completion of the meiotic division of the secondary oocyte
● Result of fertilization is diploid zygote
● Mitotic division begins as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct, forming
blastomeres and then morula, further into blastocyst
● Blastocyst consists of trophoblast and inner cell mass
● Trophoblast attaches to endometrium; inner cell mass differentiates into embryo
● Blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium called implantation
Pregnancy and embryonic development
● After implantation, chorionic villi and uterine tissue form the placenta
● Placenta - connected to the embryo via the umbilical cord; acts as an endocrine tissue;
produce hormones like hCG, hPL, oestrogens, progestogens, and relaxing
● Oestrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine increase during pregnancy;
support foetal growth, maternal metabolic changes, and pregnancy maintenance
● Embryo's inner cell mass differentiates, give rise to all tissues and organs in adults
● After one month - embryo's heart formed; by the end of the second month - limb and
digit development
● Major organ, well-developed limbs and external genital organs formed by the end of first
trimester (12 weeks)
● Fifth month - first foetal movements and appearance of hair on the head
Parturition and lactation
● Gestation period - human pregnancy of around 9 months
● Parturition - process of delivering the foetus, initiated by signals from the fully developed
foetus and placenta, causing uterine contractions and leading to the release of oxytocin
● Oxytocin - stimulates strong uterine contractions; results in the expulsion of baby from
the uterus; doctors may inject oxytocin to induce delivery
● Mammary glands undergo differentiation during pregnancy; start producing milk, known
as lactation
● Colostrum - initial milk; contains essential antibodies for new-borns, promotes immunity
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