Basic Geometry: A Foundation for Shapes and Sizes
Geometry, a branch of mathematics, is all about understanding shapes, their properties,
and their relation to space. It deals with concepts like points, lines, angles, planes, and
solids, and helps us measure and analyze the world around us. Here's a breakdown of
the fundamentals:
Building Blocks:
• Points: These are considered marks with no dimension (length, width, or height).
Imagine the tip of a sharp pencil marking a location.
• Lines: Lines extend infinitely in both directions, with no width or thickness. They
represent straight paths.
• Planes: Planes are flat, two-dimensional surfaces that extend infinitely in all
directions. Think of a perfectly flat sheet of paper.
Angles:
An angle is formed by two lines joining at a common point (vertex). Its size is measured
in degrees (°) and indicates how much the lines turn relative to each other. Here are
some common angles:
• Acute Angle: Less than 90° (narrow opening)
• Right Angle: Exactly 90° (forms a square corner)
• Obtuse Angle: Between 90° and 180° (wider than a right angle)
• Straight Angle: Exactly 180° (lines form a straight line)
Types of Lines:
• Parallel Lines: Lines that never meet, no matter how far they are extended.
• Perpendicular Lines: Lines that intersect at a right angle (90°).
• Intersecting Lines: Lines that meet at any angle other than 90°.
Distance between two points
Find the distance between the following pairs of points:
(a) A(3,2) and B(4,6)
(b) C(-1,3) and D(2,-7)
(c) E(5,-8) and F(-4,-2)
(d) P(5,-8) and Q(-4,-2)
(e) S(-3,-2) and T(1,-4)
Solution
Let d1 be the distance between A and B, then
d1 = (4 − 3) 2 + (6 − 2) 2
= 1 + 16
= 17
Midpoint of a line segment
The coordinates of the line joining ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) are:
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
,
2 2
Find the midpoints of the lines joining the following pairs of points:
(a) A(3,5) and B(1,3)
(b) P(4,4) and Q(2,-6)
(c) S(P,0) and T(0,q)
Gradients
increase − in − y
The gradient of a line is the ratio in going from one point to another
increase − in − x
on a line.
Find the gradient of the line joining (3,2) and (7,10) and the angle of slope.
Find the gradient of the line joining (-3,-5) and (4,-1) and the angle f slope of the
line.
Angles Between Two Lines
How to Find Angle Between Two Lines
Let us consider three points are given on the x − axis and y − axis whose
coordinates are given.
Consider a line whose endpoints have coordinates ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 )
The equation of the slope will be:
y 2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
Let us consider lines AB (gradient m1 ) and CD (gradient m2 ) make angles 1 and
2 respectively with the x − axis . The acute angle between the lines is
tan 1 = m1
tan 2 = m2
The exterior angle of the triangle, 2 = 1 +
= 2 − 1
Taking tangent of both sides of the equation gives:
tan = tan( 2 − 1 )
Recall that:
tan 2 − tan 1
tan( 2 − 1 ) =
1 + tan 2 tan 1
tan 2 − tan 1
Therefore, tan =
1 + tan 2 tan 1
And substituting
m − m1
tan = 2
1 + m2m1
m − m1
If 2 0 , we have the obtuse angle ( 180 − ).
1 + m2 m1
The acute angle between the two lines is therefore given as:
m − m1
tan = 2
1 + m2 m1
To determine If the Lines are Parallel
The two lines are parallel means, the angle between them is zero Ɵ = 0°
• i.e tan = 0
m2 − m1
• 0=
1 + m2m1
• m2 − m1 = 0
• m2 = m1
When slopes are equal. It shows that the lines are parallel
Note: The value of tan Ɵ will always be positive.
To determine if the Lines are Perpendicular
When the two lines are perpendicular angle between them will be 90° i.e Ɵ=90°
Recall that:
1
tan =
0
1 m2 − m1
=
0 1 + m2 m1
1 + m2 m1 = 0
m2 m1 = −1
−1
m1 =
m2
The product of their slope is -1. It shows that the lines are perpendicular.
Solved Examples:
Example 1:
If P (2,−1) , Q(5,3) , and R(−2,6) are three points, find the angle between the
straight lines PQ and QR .
Solution:
P(2,−1) = P( x1 , y1 )
Q(5,3) = Q( x2 , y2 )
R(−2,6) = R( x3 , y3 )
The slope of PQ is given by
y2 − y1
m1 =
x2 − x1
3 − (−1)
m1 =
5−2
4
m1 =
3
The slope of QR is given by
y3 − y2
m2 =
x3 − x2
6−3
m2 =
−2−5
3
m2 =
−7
3
m2 = −
7
Substituting the values of m and m in the formula for the angle between two
2 1
lines we get,
m2 − m1
tan =
1 + m2 m1
3 4
− −
tan = 7 3
3 4
1 + −
7 3
− 37
tan = 21
4
1−
7
− 37
tan = 21
3
7
− 37 7 37 37
tan = =− =
21 3 9 9
37
= tan −1 ( )
9
Example 2:
Find the angle between the following two lines.
Line 1: 4x -3y = 8
Line 2: 2x + 5y = 4
Solution:
Put 4x -3y = 8 into slope-intercept form so you can clearly identify the slope.
• 4x -3y = 8
• 3y = 4x - 8
4 8
• y= x−
3 3
Put 2x + 5y = 4 into slope-intercept form so you can clearly identify the slope.
• 2x + 5y = 4
• 5y = -2x + 4
2 4
• y=− x+
5 5
4 2
The slopes are and − or 1.33 and -0.4. It does not matter which one is m₁
3 5
or m₂. You will get the same answer.
Let m₁ = 1.33 and m₂ = -0.4
• tan θ = ± (m – m₂ ) / (1+ m₁*m₂)
1
• tan θ = ± (1.33 - (- 0.4)) / (1- (1.33)*(-0.4))
• tan θ = ± (1.73) / (1- 0.532)
• tan θ = ± (1.73 ) / (0.468)
• tan θ= 3.696
θ = tan⁻¹ (3.69)
Example 3:
Find the acute angle between y = 3x+1 and y = -4x+3
Solution:
m₁= 3 and m₂ = -4
• tan θ = ± (m – m ) / (1+ m₁*m₂)
1 2
• tan θ = ± (3-(-4) ) / (1+ 3*-4)
• tan θ = ± (7 ) / (1+(-12))
• tan θ = ± (7 ) / (-11)
• tan θ = ± (7/11)
• tan θ = 0.636
θ = tan⁻¹ (0.636)
This is all about angles formed between two lines and how to measure them.
Focus on the derivation of the formulas to understand the concepts and grab
hold of the idea of measuring angles between two lines.
Shapes:
• Polygons: These are closed shapes with straight sides and interior angles.
Examples include triangles (3 sides), squares (4 equal sides and right angles),
rectangles (4 sides with opposite sides equal), pentagons (5 sides), hexagons (6
sides), and so on.
• Circles: A circle is a perfectly round shape with all points at a constant distance
from a central point (center). The distance from the center to any point on the
circle is called the radius.
Properties of Polygons:
• Regular Polygons: All sides and angles are equal (e.g., square, equilateral
triangle).
• Irregular Polygons: Sides and/or angles are not all equal (e.g., rectangle,
scalene triangle).
• Diagonals: Line segments that connect non-consecutive vertices (corners) of a
polygon.
•
Measurements:
• Perimeter: The total length of all sides of a closed shape. Imagine the distance
you'd walk around the outside of the shape.
• Area: The amount of space a flat shape fills.
o For rectangles and squares: Area = length x width (square unit)
o For triangles: Area = 1/2 x base x height (square unit)
• Circumference: The distance around a circle. Circumference = 2πr (π is a
constant value rounded to 3.14)
• Volume: The amount of space a 3D shape fills. (Covered in more advanced
geometry)
Congruence and Similarity:
• Congruent Shapes: Shapes that have exactly the same size and shape.
Imagine two identical puzzle pieces that fit perfectly together.
• Similar Shapes: Shapes that have the same corresponding angles but different
sizes. The ratio of their side lengths remains constant.
Pythagorean Theorem:
This famous theorem applies specifically to right triangles. It states that: "in a right-
angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal
to the sum of the squares of the other two sides." (a² + b² = c²)
