Duke University

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

CE 130L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization
Spring, 2011
Henri P. Gavin

Strain Energy in Linear Elastic Solids

Consider a force, Fi , applied gradually to a structure. Let Di be the resulting

displacement at the location and in the direction of the force Fi .

If the structure is elastic, the force-displacement curve follows the same path
on loading and unloading.

If Fi is increased by ∆Fi and the corresponding increase in the displacement

is ∆Di , then as ∆Fi → 0, the incremental work, ∆W , done by the load
increment ∆Fi is
∆W ≈ Fi ∆Di ,
or, more precisely, Z D +∆D
i i
∆W = Fi dDi .
Di

When the structure is elastic and linear, that is Fi = ki Di , the total work
corresponding to a displacement Di is
Z D
i
Z D
i 1 1
W = Fi dDi = ki Di dDi = ki Di2 = Fi Di .
0 0 2 2
2 CE 130L. – Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization – Duke University – Spring 2011 – H.P. Gavin

If a linear elastic structure is subjected to a system of forces,

F1 , F2 , . . . , Fn causing displacements D1 , D2 , . . . , Dn , in the direction of those

forces, then the total external work is
1 1
W = {F1 D1 + F2 D2 + · · · + Fn Dn } = {F }T {D} .
2 2
This work will be completely stored in the structure in the form of strain en-
ergy. Therefore, the external work and strain energy are equal to one another.
External Work = Strain Energy = Internal Work

WE = U = WI

Example: Small element subjected to normal stress σxx

Strain Energy in Linear Elastic Solids 3

Strain Energy in a general state of stress and strain

A three dimensional linear elastic solid with loads supplied by external forces,
F1 , . . . , Fn , and through support reactions, can be considered to be made up
of small cubic elements as shown below:

The incremental strain energy, dU , for this elemental cube of volume dV can
be written:
1
dU = {σxx xx + σyy yy + σzz zz + τxy γxy + τxz γxz + τyz γyz } dV.
2
Integrating the incremental strain energy, dU , over an entire volume, V , the
total strain energy, U , is
1Z
U= {σxx xx + σyy yy + σzz zz + τxy γxy + τxz γxz + τyz γyz } dV.
2 V
If the stresses and strains are re-written as vectors,

{σ}T = {σxx σyy σzz τxy τxz τyz }

{}T = {xx yy zz γxy γxz γyz } ,

then the total strain energy can be written compactly as

1Z
U= {σ}T {} dV.
2 V
This equation is a general expression for the strain energy of a linear elastic
structure of any type. It can be simplified significantly for structures made
of prismatic members, such as trusses and frames.
4 CE 130L. – Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization – Duke University – Spring 2011 – H.P. Gavin

Axial Strain Energy, σxx = Nx /A, xx = u0 (x)

Consider a rod subjected to a normal force, Nx :

The normal stress on an element dA is

Nx
σxx = Exx = .
A
The corresponding strain is
σxx
= u0 (x) .
xx =
E
The incremental internal strain energy, dU , in an incremental volume element,
dV , in terms of axial forces, Nx , or axial displacements, u(x), is
2
1 1 σxx 1 Nx2
dU = σxx xx dV = dV = dA dl
2 2 E 2 EA2
1 1
= E2xx dV = E(u0 (x))2 dA dl
2 2
and the total strain energy in a bar in tension or compression is
1 Z Nx2 ZZ 1Z ZZ
U= dA dl or U= E(u0 (x))2 dA dl.
2 l EA2 A 2 l A

Since A = A dA,
RR

1 Z Nx2 1Z 2
U= dl or U= EA (u0 (x)) dl.
2 l EA 2 l
A prismatic bar with a constant axial force, Nx , and a constant strain xx =
∆x /L, along its length, is like a truss element, and the strain energy can be
expressed as
1 Nx2 L 1 EA 2
U= or U= ∆ .
2 EA 2 L x
Strain Energy in Linear Elastic Solids 5

Bending Strain Energy, σxx = −Mz y/Iz , xx = −v 00 (x) y

Consider a beam subjected to a pure bending moment about the z-axis, Mz :

The normal stress on an element dA at a distance y from the neutral axis is

Mz y
σxx (y) = Exx (y) = − .
Iz

The corresponding strain is

σxx
xx (y) = = −κy ≈ −v 00 (x) y.
E
The incremental internal strain energy, dU , in a volume element, dV , in terms
of bending moments, Mz (x), or transverse displacement, v(x), is
2
1 1 σxx 1 Mz2 y 2
dU = σxx xx dV = dV = dA dl
2 2 E 2 EIz2
1 1 2
= E2xx dV = E (v 00 (x) y) dA dl ,
2 2
and the total strain energy in a beam under pure bending moments is

1 Z Mz2 ZZ 1Z ZZ
U= y 2 dA dl or U= E(v 00 (x))2 y 2 dA dl.
2 l EIz2 A 2 l A

Since the bending moment of inertia, I, is A y 2 dA, provided that the origin
RR

of the coordinate system lies on the neutral axis of the beam ( A yz dy dz = 0),
RR

1 Z Mz2 1Z
U= dl or U= EIz (v 00 (x))2 dl.
2 l EIz 2 l
6 CE 130L. – Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization – Duke University – Spring 2011 – H.P. Gavin

Shear Strain Energy, τxy = Vy Q(y)/Iz t(y), γxy = vs0 (x)

Consider a beam subjected to a shear force, V , (and bending moment):

Vy Q(y)
τxy (y) = Gγxy (y) =
Iz t(y)
Z d
Q(y) = Moment of Area of Cross Section = t(y)y dy
y
2
1 1 τxy 1 Vy2 Q(y)2
dU = τxy γxy dV = dA dl = dA dl
2 2G 2 Iz2 Gt(y)2
1 Z Vy2 Z Z Q(y)2 1 Z Vy2 A Z Z Q(y)2
U= dA dl = dA dl
2 l Iz2 G A t(y)2 2 l GA Iz2 A t(y)2
This last integral reduces to a constant that depends only upon the shape of
the cross-section. This constant is given the variable name α.
A ZZ Q(y)2
α= 2 dA
Iz A t(y)2

The constant α for some common cross-section shapes is given below (α is

always greater than 1).

For circular tubes, α ≈ 1.13 + 1.221(ro /ri )2 − 0.71(ro /ri )3 ± 2%

For square tubes, α ≈ 2.05 − 11.15(t/d)2 + 16.16(t/d)3 ± 3%

Strain Energy in Linear Elastic Solids 7

With this simplification, the internal strain energy due to shear forces is

1 Z αVy2 1Z Vy2
U= dl = dl.
2 l GA 2 l G(A/α)

The term (A/α) is called the effective shear area.

As a review of shear stresses in beams, consider the shear stress in a rectan-

gular section.
Vy Q(y)
τxy =
Iz t(y)
d/2
y2  d2 y 2 
  
Z d/2 Z d/2
Q(y) = t(y)y dy = b y dy = b  =b  −
y y 2 y 8 2

d2
 
Vy
τxy =  − y2 .
2Iz 4
This stress varies parabolically along the direction of the applied shear. It is
maximum at the centroid of the section and zero at the ends.

The corresponding shear strain energy equation in terms of displacements is

a bit more subtle
1Z
U= G(A/α)(vs0 (x))2 dl .
2 l
where the total transverse displacement arises from bending vb (x) and shear
vs (x), v(x) = vb (x) + vs (x).
8 CE 130L. – Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization – Duke University – Spring 2011 – H.P. Gavin

Torsional Strain Energy, τ = Tx r/J, γ = r θ0

Consider a circular shaft subjected to a constant torsional moment, Tx :

The circumferential shear stress τ (r) is

Tx r
τ (r) = Gγ(r) =
J
and the corresponding shear strain is

τ (r)
γ(r) = = r θ0.
G
The incremental internal strain energy, dU , in terms of torsional moments,
Tx (x), or torsional rotations, θ(x), is

1 1 τ2 1 Tx2 r2
dU = τ γ dV = dV = dA dl
2 2G 2 GJ 2
1 1
= Gγ 2 dV = G(r θ0 )2 dA dl
2 2
and the total strain energy for the shaft is

1 Z Tx2 ZZ 1Z ZZ
U= r2 dA dl or U= G(θ0 )2 r2 dA dl.
2 l J 2G A 2 l A

2
Since the term Ar dA is the same as the polar moment of inertia, J,
RR

1 Z Tx2 1Z
U= dl or U= GJ(θ0 )2 .
2 l GJ 2 l
Strain Energy in Linear Elastic Solids 9

Total Strain Energy arising from Combined Axial Stresses

As a review of the material above, consider a three-dimensional bending

problem with a super-imposed normal force, Nx .

Nx Mz y My z
σxx = − + .
A Iz Iy
The total strain energy arising from axial and pure bending effects is
2
1Z 1 Z σxx 1Z 1 ZZ
2
Un = σxx xx dV = dV = σxx dA dl.
2 V 2 V E 2 lE A

2
The term σxx in the integral above can be expanded as follows.

Mz2 y 2 My2 z 2
 
ZZ ZZ N2 Nx Mz y Nx My z Mz My zy 
2 x
σxx dA = + + − 2 + 2 − 2 dA.
A A  A2 Iz2 Iy2 AIz AIy Iz Iy 

But, since the coordinate axes are assumed to pass through the centroid of
the cross-sectional area,
ZZ ZZ ZZ
y dA = z dA = yz dA = 0
A A A

Therefore, the total potential energy is simply the sum of the potential ener-
gies due to axial and bending moments individually.
Z M2
 
1 Z Nx2 Z M2
z y

Un =  dl + dl + dl .
2 l EA l EIz l EIy
10 CE 130L. – Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization – Duke University – Spring 2011 – H.P. Gavin

Total Strain Energy arising from Combined Shear Stresses

Just as a structural element can be subjected to combined normal and bend-

ing stresses, combined shear stresses can also act together.

Vy Qy (y)
τxy =
Iz tz (y)

Vz Qz (z)
τxz =
Iy ty (z)
Tx r
τr =
J
Through mathematical manipulations similar to those above, it can be shown
that
Vy2
 
1 Z Z Vz2 Z T2
x

Uv =  dl + dl + dl ,
2 l G(A/αy ) l G(A/αz ) l GJ

where  2
A ZZ Q (y) 
 y
αy = 2 dA
Iz A tz (y)
 2
A ZZ Q (z) 
 z
αz = 2 dA
Iy A ty (z)

Total Strain Energy

The total strain energy for solids subjected to axial, bending, shear, and
torsional forces is the sum of Un and Uv above.
Strain Energy in Linear Elastic Solids 11

Summary

Strain energy is a kind of potential energy arising from the deformation of

elastic solids. For structural elements (bars, beams, or shafts) strain energy
is expressed in terms of the elasticity of the material (E or G), the dimen-
sions of the element (L, A, I, J, or A/α), and either the internal forces (or
moments) in the element (N (x), M (x), V (x), or T (x)), or the deformation
of the element (u0 (x), v 00 (x), vs0 (x), θ0 (x)).

“force” deformation force-based deformation-based

strain-energy strain energy

RL Nx (x)2 RL
Axial Nx (x) u0 (x) x=0 E(x)A(x) dx x=0 E(x)A(x)(u0 (x))2 dx

RL Mx (x)2 RL
Bending Mz (x) v 00 (x) x=0 E(x)I(x) dx x=0 E(x)I(x)(v 00 (x))2 dx

RL Vx (x)2 RL
Shear Vy (x) vs0 (x) x=0 G(x)(A(x)/α) dx x=0 G(x)(A(x)/α)(vs0 (x))2 dx

RL Tx (x)2 RL
Torsion Tx (x) θ0 (x) x=0 G(x)J(x) dx x=0 G(x)J(x)(θs0 (x))2 dx

where:
E(x) is Young’s modulus
G(x) is the shear modulus
A(x) is the cross sectional area of a bar
I(x) is the bending moment of inertia a beam
A(x)/α is the effective shear area a beam
J(x) is the torsional moment of inertia of a shaft
Nx (x) is the axial force within a bar
Mz (x) is the bending moment within a beam
Vy (x) is the shear force within a beam
Tx (x) is the torque within a shaft
u0 (x) is du(x)/dx, the axial strain, u(x) is the axial displacement along the bar
v 00 (x) is d2 v(x)/dx2 , the curvature, v(x) is the transverse bending displacement of the beam
vs0 (x) is dvs (x)/dx, the shear deformation, vs (x) is the transverse shear displacement of the beam
θ0 (x) is dθ(x)/dx, the torsional deformation, θ(x) is the torsional rotation of the shaft