Introduction to Civil

&Environmental
Engineering

Week 5 Notes
Topics Week 5
Structural Behaviour (SLO 2)

• Basic Loading Behaviour

• Buckling
• Concrete Structures
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.1 Tension

• Tension occurs when a structural element is loaded

along its principal axis in tension. An example is a rope
being pulled at each end as in Figure 1 below.

Fig. 1 Rope subject tension load.

1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.1.1 Tensile Strength

• The tensile strength of a material, s is determined using

a uniaxial testing machine (universal testing machine).

Fig. 2 Rod subject to uniaxial tension.

Note: the reduced thickness of the bar is
due to the Poisson’s Ratio, n effect. Fig. 3 Specimen being tested
uniaxially in a testing machine.
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.1.1 Tensile Strength
• The stress verses strain behaviour of a ductile material
such as mild steel is shown in Figure 4.
Notes:

sy is the yield stress also

called the strength at the
yield point or more simply
the Yield Strength.

su is the stress at ultimate

strength or Ultimate
Strength.

sf is the stress at failure or

Rupture Strength.

Fig. 4 Stress strain diagram for mild steel (ductile material)

1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.1.1 Tensile Strength
• A detailed stress verses strain diagram for mild steel is
shown in Figure 5.

Fig. 6 Comparison of ductility for

mild steel and high carbon steels

Note:
spl is the stress at the
Fig. 5 Stress strain diagram for mild steel
proportionality limit.
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.1.2 Yield Limit
• For high carbon steels
as shown in Figure 6 and
materials having low
ductility, the yield point
is not easily
differentiated as is the
case with mild steel.
Therefore an alternative
method is used to
determine the yield
point. This method is
known as the 0.2% strain
offset and is shown in
Figure 7.
Fig. 7 Stress strain and the 0.2 % offset
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.1.3 Tensile Strength
• Stress verses strain
diagrams for high-
carbon steels are
shown in Figure 8.

Fig. 8 Stress strain diagram for a

Fig. 9 Ductile behaviour various steel.
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.2 Compression
• Compression occurs when a structural element is loaded
along its principal axis in compression. An example is a
column in compression as in Figure 10.

Fig. 10 Stress strain diagram for compression

1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.2 Compression
• For stocky steel members the Compression behaviour is
identical to the tension behaviour. However, for slender
sections buckling will occur before the yield limit is
reached.
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.3 Bending
C
• Bending occurs when a load is placed at right
angles to the axis of a structural element.
Bending is the predominant behaviour for
beams and girders. Beam subject to bending
r
is shown in Figure 11.

NA
NA

Fig. 12 Neutral Axis (NA) before

and after Bending in beams.
r is the radius of curvature, and
curvature k =1/r
Fig. 11 Bending in beams
 1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.3.1 Beams

• The internal bending behaviour (moment) in a

beam is determined by its support conditions.
Figure 13 shows some of the more common
beam supports and their terminology.

Fixed or
built in
Pin Support Roller end Free
Support
end

overhang

Roller Pin Support

Support
Fig. 13 Beam support types
 1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.3.1 Beams

• Large Beams are called Girders. The

photographs show a range of “Bridge Girders”

Fig. 14 ASHTO Type Precast

Bridge Girder.

Fig. 15 Bridge Box Girder.

1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.3.1 Beams

Fig. 16 Girder Handling using a ‘Cradle’ on the WestConnex Project, Sydney.

1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.4 Shear

• Shear behaviour occurs when forces are

trying to cut through a material.
• The stresses resulting from actions tying to
cut a material are known as shear stresses.
Shear stresses can be parallel or at right
angles to the material.

Shear surface

Shear surface

(a)

(b)
Fig. 17a Shear behaviour
Fig. 17b Shear loading
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.4 Shear

• Figure 18 shows a bolt in shear. Note that in

Figure 18b the shear is occurring over two
planes. Shear surface

Shear surface

P P/2
P
P/2

(a)
Shear surface

Fig. 18a One plane shear on Bolt.

Fig. 18b Shear loading
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.5 Torsion
• Torsion or twisting behaviour occurs when a torque is
applied to end of a shaft or a bending moment occurs at
right angles to the principal axis of a beam. Examples of
torsion are shown in Figures 19 & 20.

Fig. 20 The angle of twist, f is proportional to

the applied torque, T and inversely proportional
Fig. 19 Torsion in beams
to the Polar Moment of Inertia, Ip and the shear
Modulus, G.
1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.6 Noise & Vibration
• Excessive noise or noise
pollution can be harmful or
affect an areas amenity.
• Many causes of noise
pollution include
machinery, transport
systems and construction
activity (excavation and
blasting).

Fig. 21 Noise
& Vibration
Fig. 22 Rebuilt Verrazano Narrows Bridge
after it collapsed due to wind induced
resonance failure.
 1 Basic Loading Behaviour
1.6 Noise & Vibration
• Examples of noise protection barriers are shown in
Figures 23 to 25.

Fig. 23 Noise wall barrier

Fig. 24 Noise pollution barrier Fig. 25 Clear Noise barrier

2 Buckling
2.1 Columns

• Columns are structural members loaded axially in

compression. A slender column in compression will not
fail due to direct compression however it will bend
laterally and collapse due to buckling before the yield
load is reached.

• The critical load, for an ideal elastic column is given

by the Euler Load:
2 Buckling
2.2 Effective Length

• For a column pinned at both ends the effective length,

is equal to the length of the column. Figure 26 gives the
theoretical effective length factor, K for other end
support conditions.

Fig. 26 Effective length

for columns
2 Buckling
2.2 Effective Length (Recommended by Standard)

• The effective length, as recommended in the

Standard is given in Figure 27.

Fig. 27 Effective length

for columns
recommended by the
Standard
2 Buckling
2.3 Example
• Determine the critical load, for a column 4.0 m in length.
It is fixed at the base and pinned at the other end for lateral
deflection about the x-axis. It is fixed at both ends about the
y-axis. The section is a 150UC30 Grade 300 Plus.
• Properties of section (from OneSteel now trading as
Infrabuild)

Ix = 17.6 x 106 mm4

Iy = 5.62 x 106 mm4
Solution to Example
K = 0.85
lex = 0.85 x 4000 = 3400 mm
ley = 0.70 x 4000 = 2800 mm
3 Concrete Structures
3.1 Introduction
• Concrete is a very versatile material and extensively utilised
in the construction of civil infrastructure.
• The main reasons for its popularity as a construction
material are:
▪ Its readily available,
▪ Has good structural strength and is durable,
▪ Relatively low cost,
▪ Easy to manufacture, transport and place using simple
plant and equipment and requires relatively low skilled
labour,
3 Concrete Structures

Fig. 28 ANZAC Bridge during construction and inset showing completed bridge
(Using Balance Cantilever Construction Method)
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.1 Characteristic Compressive Strength, 𝑓𝑐′

• Concrete is placed in a plastic state and compacted to

increase its density using vibration and Roding procedures.
The plastic concrete takes the shape of the Formwork and is
cured (hydration process is allowed to continue over a
number of weeks with addition of water and moisture
barriers to prevent the concrete from drying out).

Note: During hot weather placement of concrete rapid drying out of

the plastic concrete must be avoided using careful curing techniques
in order to prevent cracks occurring in the hardened concrete due to
drying shrinkage.
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.1 Characteristic Compressive Strength, 𝑓𝑐′

• A few hours after placement and depending on the concrete

mix design and the use of admixtures (i.e. additives such as
accelerators & retarders) the plastic concrete hardens to
what is called Initial Set.
• The concrete at initial set does not have sufficient strength
to support load and needs to be protected from being
damaged and overstressed using shoring, scaffolding or
other falseworks.
• During this curing time usually 1 to two weeks, the plastic
concrete begins to harden (increase in strength).
• The strength gain is most rapid during and immediately after
the period of initial set however, the concrete strength
continues to increase with age.
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.1 Characteristic Compressive Strength, 𝑓𝑐′

• For design purposes the characteristic compressive

Strength, 𝒇′𝒄 is the strength of concrete after it has cured for
28 days.
• The standard concrete strength grades are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Concrete Strength Grades

Grade (MPa)
𝑓𝑐′ 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100

Note: Grades between 20 and 32 MPa are readily available from most
readymix batching plant suppliers. Strength grades 50 MPa and
above will usually require special order.
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.2 Tensile Strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑡
• The uniaxial tensile strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑡 is the maximum stress that
concrete can withstand in uniaxial tension.
• 𝑓𝑐𝑡 is given by the following equations:

& are found from laboratory testing

• In the absence of laboratory testing. The characteristic

′
flexural tensile strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑡.𝑓 and the characteristic uniaxial
tensile strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑡′ of concrete can be taken as:
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.3 Modulus of Elasticity, E
• The modulus of elasticity, E is the Slope of the line in Figure
29 & 30 or the ratio of stress, s versus strain, e.

Fig. 29 Stress v strain curve for ductile Fig. 30 Stress v strain curve for brittle
materials. material i.e. plain unreinforced concrete
materials.
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.3 Modulus of Elasticity, Ecj
• The modulus of elasticity, Ecj for concrete is given by:

Where

Where

• The modulus determined from these equations can vary  20%.

For standard strength grade concrete the properties in Table 2
are recommended.
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.3 Modulus of Elasticity, Ecj
• The modulus of elasticity for the available concrete grades is
given in Table 2.

Table 2 Concrete Properties at 28 Days

Grade (MPa)

𝑓𝑐′ 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑖 22 28 35 43 53 68 82 99
Ec 24000 26700 30100 32800 34800 37400 39600 42200
3.2 Concrete Properties
3.2.4 Density, r
• For normal weight concrete (as opposed to light weight
concrete) the density shall be taken as 2400 kg/m3 unless
determined using AS 1012.

3.2.5 Poisson’s Ratio, n

• Poisson’s ratio, n is equal to 0.2.

3.2.6 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, a

• Coefficient of thermal expansion, a to be taken equal to
x10-6/°C
3.3 Properties of Reinforcements
• The strength properties of steel reinforcements are given in
Table 3.

Table 3 Strength Properties of Reinforcements

Characteristic
Yield Strength, Uniform
Reinforcement ssy strain Ductility
(to AS 4671) (Mpa) (esu) Class
Designation
type grade 35 43 53
Plain bars R250N 250 0.05 N
Deformed *D500L 500 0.015 L
bars D500N 500 0.05 N
Welded wire D500L 500 0.015 L
mesh D500N 500 0.05 N

*For fitments only.

Es taken as 200 x 103 Mpa
3.3 Properties of Reinforcements
• Cross-sectional areas of reinforcing steel bars ‘rebar’ are
shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Reinforcing Bar Cross Sectional Area Properties