1. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS.

Topics

1. What is research

2. Types of research/ approaches to research

3. Qualitative vs quantitative research

4. Types of quantitative research

5. Steps of quantitative research

1.1 : What is (scientific) research?

 A systematic process of inquiry or investigation to gain knowledge on a particular

topic.

 Involves collection, organisation and analysis of data.

1.2 : Types/ approaches to research

 Qualitative approach

 Quantitative approach

 Mixed methods approach.

Research Knowledge Strategy of Inquiry Methods

Approach Claims

Quantitative Post-positivist Experimental Collection of numeric data.

assumptions (i.e. designs
Statistical analysis
cause and effect
Non- experimental
thinking, Tests or verifies theories.
designs such as
reduction to Pre- determined instruments.
surveys
specific variables E.g. structured questionnaires.
and hypothesis).
Measurement and observation
(Experiments)
 Qualitative Constructivist Ethnographies Collects participant meanings,
assumptions (i.e. stories autobiographies, field
Narratives
multiple meanings observations, open- ended
of individual Phenomenologies interviews.
experiences, Grounded theory
meanings socially
Case studies
and historically
constructed.

Mixed Pragmatic Mixed method Both closed and open ended

assumptions design, sequential/ measures.
concurrent e.g.
Observations.
survey and case
study. Interviewing- questions both
emerging and predetermined.

Both qualitative and

quantitative data.

1.4: Types of quantitative research

1. Survey Research

 The most common tool in quantitative research.

 Used to explain the characteristics of a particular group or a bunch of population.

 Can be used on both small and large scale.

 Cross-sectional and longitudinal are two main kinds of surveys that can be used to
conduct the survey quantitative research analysis.

 Cross-sectional survey is conducted specifically on a target population at a given time.

 Longitudinal survey, research is conducted at various time durations. These are utilized
in medicine and applied sciences.
2. Descriptive Research

 Explains the current status of an identified variable.

 The researcher does not usually begin with the hypothesis, however, but may develop
one after collecting the information.

 E.g. description of a certain social problem like domestic violence, etc

3. Correlational Research

 Used to establish a relationship between two close entities and to determine how one
impacts the other.

 Researcher needs at least two separate groups. This type of research will recognize
trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its analysis to observe the different
patterns.

 Correlational research sometimes considered a type of descriptive research as no

variables are manipulated in the study.

 Cause and effect are not the basis of this type of observational research.

 Examples of Correlational research include the relationships between drug and alcohol
use and domestic violence.

4. Experimental Research

 Usually based on one or more theories.

 Uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of
variables that make up a study. Multiple theories can be used to conduct this research.
The components of the experimental research design are prescribed below.

 A comparison group of participants who are randomly selected and assigned to

experimental and control groups.

 An independent variable, which can be referred to as the experimental variable that can
be applied to the experimental group.
  A dependent variable, which can be referred to as the effect or post-test variable that
can be measured in an identical manner for all groups.

 E.gs of experiments in Sociology?

5. Casual-Comparative Research

 Employed to conclude the cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where
one variable depends on the opposite experimental variable. An independent variable
is not manipulated by the experimenter, and the effects of the independent variable on
the dependent variable are measured.

 It works on the process of comparison.

 Once analysis and conclusions are made, deciding about the causes should be done
fastidiously, as other different variables, each far-famed and unknown, might still have
an effect on the result.

 Examples of this type of research include the impact of drugs on a teenager.

2.1 DEFINATION OF STATISTICAL TERMS

1. Statistics: it is a science which includes the collection and interpretation of data for decision
making purposes. (Munzara 2013)

Two branches of statistics:

i) Descriptive statistics- deals with the collection, presentation and characterisation of

data, aimed at adequately describing the data.
ii) Inferential statistics-uses sample data to draw conclusions about underlying
populations. Involves estimation and hypothesis testing.

2. Variable: a quantity that assumes different values in a particular discussion or study.

3. Population: the collection of ALL elements under, the entire collection of study units.

4. Parameter: A numeric value calculated from population data e.g population mean.

5. Sample: it is a subset, or a smaller set of measurements or study units selected from the
population. It should be representative of the population, i.e should have most of the
characteristics of the population.

6. Census: the process of studying each and every member of the population.

7. Survey: the process of studying a sample of the population.

2.2. PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Probability sampling: involves random selection, allows for strong statistical inferences about
the whole group. Probability sampling gives every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. Results are representative
of the whole population. Examples include simple random sampling, stratified sampling,
systematic sampling, cluster sampling.

Non-probability sampling: involves non-random selection based on convenience or other

criteria, it allows for easy collection of data. Non-probability sampling techniques are often
used in exploratory and qualitative research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a
hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or
under-researched population. It is easier and cheaper to access, but has a higher risk of sampling
bias. Examples include convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling.

2.3 REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Methods of displaying data

1. PICTOGRAPHS/ PICTOGRAM
 Uses symbols or pictures to represent numbers
 Symbols used should be easy to associate with the context of the data

Example

The following data shows enrolment figures at a school from 2005-2007. Show the data on a
pictograph.
 2. BAR CHART
 Several types of bar charts:
i. Simple bar chart
 Used to represent only one attribute
 Each category is represented by a bar
 The height of each bar is directly proportional to the frequency of the
category.

Example: 30 people were asked if they would accept the COVID-19 vaccine. The responses
were as follows:

Response Frequency

Yes 10
 No 15
Not sure 5

Represent the data on a simple bar chart

ii. Component bar chart

 Also known as stacked bar chart

 Each bar is divided into components
 Used to display two or more attributes
 Useful for emphasising relative proportions of each category.
 COMPONENT BAR CHART SHOWING
MINERAL EXPORTS ( IN THOUSAND
TONNES) OF COUNTRY X
Gold Diamonds Platinum

2004 4.5 2.8 5

2003 3.5 1.8 3

2001 2.5 4.4 2

2000 4.3 2.4 2

iii. Cluster bar char

 Also known as multiple bar chart

 Useful for emphasising the absolute differences between categories of one

attribute within the categories of another.

 Cluster Bar Chart showing mineral exports for Country X
6

0
2000 2001 2003 2004

Gold Diamonds Platinum

3. HISTOGRAM

 Consists of a set bars whose areas represent the frequencies of the various

classes.

 Unlike a bar chart, there are no gaps between the bars.

 The height of the bars can be used to represent frequency of classes and on the

horizontal axis will be the class boundaries.

Example
 4. FREQUENCY POLYGON

 It is drawn by plotting frequency against class midpoints

 The points are then joined by straight lines.
 You must not leave the frequency polygon hanging, it should be anchored on
the horizontal axis.
 It is usually constructed after having drawn a histogram already, so you simply
join the top midpoints of the bars by straight lines.

Example
SHAPE OF THE DISTRIBUTION

1. Skewness
 A measure of the degree of asymmetry of a frequency distribution.
i. Positive (right skewed) distribution- most of the data is concentrated
on the left of the histogram and the distribution stretches to the right than
it does to the left. The relative position of the mean is that it is higher
than the median which is higher than the mode.

ii. Negative (left skewed) distribution- most of the data is clustered to the
right, and the distribution stretches to the left. The mean is less than the
median which is less than the mode.
 2. Kurtosis
 It is a measure of peakedness of a distribution relative to normal distribution
 Two types
i. Leptokurtic- more peaked than normal distribution

ii.) Platykurtic – a flatter distribution compared to the normal distribution.

References

Aczel, A.D. and Sounderpandian, J. (2005). Complete Business Statistics. India: Tata McGraw-
Hill.

Buglear, J. (2005). Quantitative Methods for Business. London: Elsevier Butterworth-

Heinemann

Muchengetwa, S. (2005). Business Statistics. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.

Munzara, A.T. (2013). Business Statistics 1. Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.

Wegner, T. (1999). Applied Business Statistics. Cape Town: Juta and Co