MODULE I

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

The opening module of this paper deals with what is Sociology through the idea of different
sociologists, and its nature and scope. Besides this what is sociological imagination and how
it helps to mold sociological outlook. The module refers sociology and commonsense how
these are different from each other, it is an inevitable part of this paper because sociology
studies the commonsense concepts applying the scientific methods. Family, marriage, religion,
political institutions, economic institutions etc. are important social institutions thoseare the
basic concept of sociology its characteristics and significance are analyzed in this module. The
module provides a basic idea about sociology and its scienticity.

1.1 Sociology: Definition, Nature and Scope

Sociology is a branch of social science that deals with society. Social relationships are the
subject matter of sociology. Sociology is a new science developed only in 19 th century. Even
though it is a youngest science its scope is extremely wide. Man and society and their
relationship are the specific area of study. Sociology which had once been treated as social
philosophy or the philosophy of history emerged as an independent social science in the 19th
century in France. Auguste Comte, a French philosopher is popularly known as the founding
father of Sociology. Comte is accredited with the coining of the term sociology in 1839. The
term sociology is composition of two words like Latin word socius means companion and
Greek word logos meaning science or study. Sociology has been defined in a number of ways
by different sociologists. The definitions of different sociologists are cited below;

Definition

 Auguste Comte a French Philosopher who defines “sociology as the science of social
phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object
of investigation.”
 Max Weber a German Philosopher defined “sociology as a science which attempts the
interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal
explanation of its course and effects.”
 Emile Durkheim was French philosopher and one of an important classical social
thinker defines “sociology as the science of social institutions.”
 Different sociologists differently defined sociology. It is evident that the sociologists
differ in their opinion about sociology. However the common idea underlying all the definitions
mentioned above is that sociology is concerned with social institutions, man and his actions.
Various sociologists defined sociology on the basis of subject matter. Auguste Comte displays
social phenomena as the subject matter, but Weber identified social action as the subject matter
and Durkheim’s view is different from both of these sociologists. For him sociology is the
scientific study of social institutions.

Nature of Sociology

Each and every subject has a specific nature, which simply means the underlying
characteristics. Sociology as a branch of knowledge it has its own unique characteristics. It is
different from other sciences in certain respects. Robert Bierstedt (1913-1998) an American
Sociologist discussed the characteristics of sociology in his well-known book entitled as The
Social Order: An Introduction to Sociology (1957). Following are the main characteristics of
sociology enlisted by Bierstedt

1. Sociology is an independent science: Sociology is not treated and studied as a

branch of any other science like philosophy, history etc. and it has its own field of study,
boundary and method so it is an independent science.
2. Sociology is a social science not a physical science: Sociology belongs to thecategory
of social science not physical science. As a social science its major attention is on man,
social behavior, social activities and a social life. As a social science Sociology is
intimately related to other social sciences like History, Political Science, Economics,
Psychology, Anthropology etc. Specifically Sociology deals with thesocial universe
which distinguishes from Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry and other physical sciences.
3. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative science: Sociology explains about
different categories, positive and negative, good and bad, right and wrong etc. Norms
are the expected modes of behavior based on social values, Sociology studies these
norms but not support it. Hence it is categorical but not normative. As scienceSociology
do not make any kind of value judgments. Sociology is ethically neutral, and never
deals with the problems of good and evil, right and wrong. Its approach is neither moral
nor immoral but amoral. Sociology deals with values and norms as the bases of social
order that constitute social structure. Sociology is a science its knowledge is scientific not
emotional.
4. Sociology is a pure science not an applied science: Commonly science is broadly
classified into pure and applied. Pure science mainly seeks to the acquisition of
knowledge they haven’t any application but applied science is mainly concentrates its
 knowledge more on the application in different contexts than acquisition of knowledge.
Sociology is not an applied science.
5. Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science: Sociology
mainly observes and studies social phenomena, which are abstract in nature. The very
subject matter of Sociology is society so it is abstract, whereby Sociology as adiscipline
studies social relationships, social structure, and social system and so on. The subject
is more concerned with the forms of human relationships and their pattern, which are
absolutely abstract in nature. Because of the nature of the subject matter, the
Sociology becomes an abstract science.
6. Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing science: Sociology tries to
find out the general laws or principles about human interaction and association about
the nature, form, content and structure of human groups and societies. It does not
study each and every event that takes place in society in isolation. It tries to make
generalizations on the basis of the study of some selected events.
7. Sociology is a general science not a special social science: General science means a
branch of knowledge constituted by the combination of different subjects like
Economics, Political Science, History, Sociology etc. But special science is the
opposite of general science. Special science concentrates its enquiry on specific aspects
of knowledge, for example Political Science deals with political aspects of society, and
Economics deals with the economic aspects of society. Sociology studies human
society as a whole in this sense sociology is a general science.
8. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science: Rationalism and empiricism
are the two broad approaches of scientific knowledge. The empiricists emphasized
that the experiences and facts that result from observation and experimentation. Simply
they conceptualizes that all knowledge is derived from senses that means experiences.
Rationalists’ stresses on reason and theories that result from the logical inferences. In
this way Sociology makes use of the methods of rational and empirical sciences.
Therefore Sociology could be treated as both rational and empirical science.
Sociology is a science so its nature is scientific and above mentioned features are assure the
scientific nature of the subject.

Scope of Sociology

Sociology is a social science which deals with the social institutions, social interactions,
social behavior etc. Since the dawn of civilization society has been a subject for speculation
and enquiry. Even centuries ago men were thinking about society and how it should be
organized. Though thoughts and discussions were in sociological terms they were called
philosophers, historians, thinkers, law gives etc. Sociology came to be established as aseparate
discipline in the 19th century by the efforts of French Philosopher Auguste Comte. But there is
no unanimous agreement among the scholars about the scope of sociology is wide. The scope
of a subject mainly determined on the basis of its area of study and the uses of it in people’s
life. The scope of sociology explained by philosophers based on separate ideas that constitute
two schools of thought such as specialistic or formalistic school and synthetic school that are
briefly explain below.

Specialistic or Formalistic School

It is the first school explains about the scope of sociology on the basis of area of
study. Advocates of the specialistic school opined that sociology has a limited scope. German
Sociologists are the main advocators of the formalistic school. George Simmel (1858-1918) a
prominent German Philosopher and sociologist who headed and who supported the formalistic
school’s view that sociology is a pure and independent science. He summarized that sociology
is a specific science which deals with the forms of social interaction than its content, the content
analyzed by other social sciences. Sociology deals with the forms of social relationships and
activities than the relationships themselves. Alfred Vierkandt (1867- 1953) a German
Sociologist opines that sociology is a special branch of knowledge which deals with the
ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationship which link men to one anotherin society. Love,
hate, cooperation etc. are examples of mental relationships which shape particular type of social
relationships. If sociology refrains from the historic study of concrete societies, Sociology
becomes a definite science. Since the subject matter of sociology confined in the forms of
mental or psychic relationships the scope of sociology is limited. Leopold Vonwiese (1876-
1969) another German Sociologist included in formalistic school who opined that owing to
sociology confined its’ area of study on the forms of socialrelationships and social
processes the scope of sociology is limited. He divided the social
relationships and social processes into different types. According to him there are two social
processes in society such as associative and dissociative. Cooperation, accommodation,
assimilation are important associative social process whereas competition and conflict are the
commonly exist as forms of dissociative social process.

Max Weber (1864-1920), a well known German Sociologist supports the view of formalistic
school that the scope of sociology is very limited. Because of sociology concentrates its area
of analysis on the interpretative understanding of social action and social behavior, sociology
should confine itself in the analysis and classification of social action and social behavior.
Ferdinand Tonnies a popular German Sociologist opines that sociology studies the forms of
social relationship and it deeply analyses all process, phenomena and institutions under the
head of the forms of social relationships. Gemeinschaft (German word meaning society) and
Gessellschaft (German Word means community) is the differentiation of social group made by
Tonnies.

Synthetic School

It is another perception of philosophers on the scope of sociology on the basis of the area of
study; it developed as a criticism of specialistic school. This school opined that the scope of
sociology is wide. Like its name the school of thought states that sociology is the synthesis of
social sciences. The school also argued that sociology is a general science. Important thinkers
comes under synthetic school are L T Hobhouse, P A Sorokin, Morris Ginsberg and Karl
Mannheim, their contributions are summed up below.

Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse (1864-1929) an English liberal political theorist and sociologist,
popularly known as Hobhouse who opined that sociology is the synthesis of social sciences but
sociologists has some special tasks which are given below.

(1) One must pursue his studies in his particular part of the social field.
(2) Keeping in mind the interconnections of social relations one should try to interconnect
the result arrived at by different social sciences.
(3) Sociologists should interpret social life as a whole.

Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968) a Russian born American sociologist, popularly

known as P A Sorokin opines that sociology studies different aspects of social relationship
so cannot call it as special science. According to him the area of study of sociology includes
the study of general features of social phenomena and their relationship with various aspects
of social phenomena and study the relationship between social and non social aspects.

Morris Ginsberg (1889-1970) a British sociologist, according to him sociology studies and
classifies all forms of social relationships, it also analyses the relationship between individual
and society. He divides the area of study of sociology into three which constitutes the scope
of sociology.

1. Social Morphology
2. Social control
3. Social process
4. Social pathology
Social morphology studies the quality and quantity of population, social groups, social
structure and social institutions. The another area of study social control analyses formal
and informal control mechanisms existing in society for control the behavior of members.
Social process is the third branch of area of study it studies different types of interaction
like cooperation, competition and conflict. Social pathology studies the social problems
such as poverty, crime etc.

Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) a well knew German Sociologist, who divides the area of
study of sociology into two branches. Among those first branch is systematic and general
sociology and the second is historical sociology. The first branch deals with the main factors
of living together and the second branch studies the historical variety and actuality of the
general forms of society. Comparative sociology and social dynamics are the two sections
constituted the historical sociology.

1.2 The Sociological Imagination –Task and promise

Charles Wright Mills popularly known as C. Wright Mills, was an American sociologist
born on August 28, 1916 in Waco, Texas, United States. The SociologicalImagination is an
important theoretical contribution of him for the foundation of sociology. The theory referred
in his book The Sociological Imagination published in 1959. Mills in hisbook mainly analyzes
how one should approach the world in order to study it sociologically. White Collar (1951)
and The Power Elite (1956) are the other major influential books by Mills.
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Sociological imagination is a theory comes under the theoretical branch of sociology of

everyday life, which was emerged in 1960s in USA. This branch of theory analyses the micro
aspects of society. Sociological imagination is a quality of mind for observing world
sociologically. It highlights the quality of mind to correlates the personal experiences and
social change. Through acquiring this quality individual can understand society as a whole.
Mills perceives that contemporary history is the facts about the success and failure of
individual men and women. At the same time social science deals with the problems of
biography of history and their intersections with social structures. In this sense sociological
imagination helps to understand society and social change. Mills highlights that all things
occurring in this world due to the interplay of society. He used the concept the personal
troubles of milieu (biography) as the problems of persons in his social environment, which
means any problems suffering from individual in his own life like unemployment,
discrimination, oppression, suicide etc. Public issue of social structure is another concept used
to represent the problems produced by collectivities in society like war, drought,
unemployment, etc. All our systems are existing through the correlation between personal
problems and history. If individuals consider their personal issues as their own issues and they
cannot overcome that alone, when sociological imagination helps to evaluate thatproblem as
the result of historical change. For example unemployment of a person is the result of personal
cause, but the unemployment of 50% of people in a society is a social cause, that is the result
of globalization or other global economic changes. Mills assure certain task and promises
through this approach that are given below:

1. It enables individuals to understand the larger historical scene in terms of the

meaning of inner life (personal things) and the external career (activities of group
of people) of a variety of individuals.
2. It provides the ability to understand the intimate realities of oneself in connection
with larger social realities.
3. It capacitates individual to change issues from physical to psychological. An
individual consider his problem as his own problems. Through the grasping of
sociological imagination, he can understand his own problem as part of larger
society, in this sense it provides the capacity to shift from one perspective to
another.
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4. It facilitates the individual to understand what is going on in the world and what is
happening in themselves as minute points of the intersection of biography and
history within society.
Sociological imagination is a capacity of mind helps to understand personal problems in
connection with social realities. Mills conceives personal problems as physical, which is
individual. Sociological imagination facilitates to change those personal problems as the
problems result from social change, it is psychological. Through the combining of personal
problems with public issues, the individual can understand society, because social science and
contemporary history made with the interplay of biography and history. Even if the individual
cannot understand his own problems in the light of a larger social context, he/she cannot
understand the world. The approach mainly facilitates individual for developing a sociological
outlook in analysis of the world.

1.2. Sociology and Common Sense

Sociology is a discipline which objectively searches for interconnections among different

domains (area) of society and its systematic use of comparisons. Sociology studies the
common people in society and the commonsense concepts like religion, economics, politics,
caste, dowry, domestic violence etc. As the peculiarity of its subject matter people may
misunderstand sociology studies as the commonsense. Even though Sociology and
commonsense seems to be closely related, they are different. Commonsense means the
people’s innate ability to understand and asses the things they see and hear on a regular
basis.

Sociologists test the insights created by commonsense by systematically assembling large

body of data and applying the data, concepts and methods that may be applied to other domains
of life in other parts of the world, for example Durkheim’s study of suicide.Durkheim
externally saw suicide as a commonsense concept, then he studies it apply the scientific
methods and find the social causes behind it and he conclude it as a social problem. Weber’s
study of religious values and economic action is another example. Religion is a commonsense
concept but Weber try to objectively coordinate religious behavior with economic growth.
Religion is part of private life but economy is element of public life. He objectively
conceptualizes how religious behavior in world leading to economic growth but in
commonsense concept religion is part of belief.
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Sociology studies the laymen concepts like family, marriage, class, caste, race, socialization
etc. and it enquires about these on the basis of its own procedures like survey research,
statistical analysis etc. Sociology is a formal field of academic study, objectivity is its nature
and it scientifically analyses the society but commonsense is subjective and it has noscientific
support. Sociology predicts the reality on the basis of scientific method but commonsense
does not always accurately predict reality. Commonsense formed on the basis of certain
constraints like norms, values, and control but sociology supports these constraints, its
knowledge is scientific so it is not yielded by these constraints.

Sociological knowledge is general, specific and systematic whereas commonsense is

particular and localized. Even though the sociology is dynamic its knowledge is more or less
static and it transcends time and place but the commonsense is highly variable subject to the
constraints of time and place. Sociology is a branch of social science and it has a body of
concepts, methods and data but commonsense has no specific methods other than individual
features like emotions, personal choices, ideas etc. A deepened and broadened systematic
study occurred in sociology but commonsense is externally search the things. Sociology forms
knowledge by a systematic investigation but commonsense shapes its knowledge by limited
experience of particular persons in particular places and times that hinders theexamination of
the available and relevant facts. Commonsense is utopian whereas sociology is anti-utopian.

Sociology’s central preoccupation with the disjunction (lack of consistency) between what
human beings consider right, proper and desirable and their actual conditions of existence.
Sociology is anti-fatalistic in its orientation. It does not accept the particular constraints
taken for granted by commonsense as eternal or immutable. Sociological reasoning acts
upon commonsense it tends to moderate both the utopian and the fatalistic elements in it.
Sociology is bias free but commonsense is the source of potential bias and error. Sociological
knowledge is value neutral or value free whereas commonsense is based on value judgments
(judgments of reality on the basis of values like truth, happy, interest etc.).

1.3 Social Institutions-Features and Significance

Social Institutions

Institutions are the building blocks of society, which made society, fulfills social
needs and maintains social order. Due to its closeness to society and individual it is an
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important concept in social sciences like Sociology, Anthropology, Political Science,

Economics etc. Institutions are not an individual concept it is a social concept. Social
institutions are helps to maintain social order and social existence. It is mainly fulfills the
social needs. It simply means the complex set of social norms, beliefs, values and role
relationship that arise in response to the needs of society. Society is the subject matter of
sociology and society is made out of social institutions like family, marriage, caste, religion,
education etc. so it has very importance in sociology. Even though the concept has some
complexities sociologists differently conceptualize it those are given below;

Definition

 MacIver and Page define “social institution is the established forms or conditions of
procedure characteristics of group activity.”
 Ian Robertson defines “an institution is a stable cluster of values, norms, status, roles and
groups that develops around a basic social need.”
 Horton and Hunt define “an institution is an organized system of social relationship which
embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain needs of the society.”

These three sociologists similarly conceptualize social institution as the established forms of
values, norms. Especially the institutions are the norms regulating the behavior of individuals
and help to fulfill the social needs like, family provides a code of conduct for regulate the
behavior and family fulfills the needs of individuals, marriage another institution, facilitates
union of two individuals and give room for reproduction, religion a social institution regulate
the behavior of individual. Hence institutions are norms that are codified in different heads like
family, marriage, caste, religion etc.

Features of Social Institutions

Social institutions are the inevitable part of society and individual, which in found in all
societies in all times. It has certain features which are given below

1. Satisfaction of specific needs: Institutions are the established forms of laws which help
to satisfy the needs of individual. For example family is a primary institution which
satisfies certain needs like affection, economic, security etc.
2. Prescription of rules: Institutions are the sources of prescription of rules. It provides certain
rules for behaving like religion provide certain rules for controlling the behavior.
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3. Abstractness: Institutions are neither visible nor tangible. Individuals cannot see the
institutions but they can experience it.
4. Cultural symbols: Culture is a way of life. Institutions are the symbols which expresses
certain lifestyles so it is the cultural symbols.
5. Universality: Social institutions although in different forms are found in all societies in
all times in primitive and modern societies.
6. Social in nature: Institutions are not individual phenomena. It is exist among group so they
are social phenomena.
7. Institutions are the controlling mechanisms: Institutions are set of norms or rules which
act as the controlling mechanisms. Institutions like family, marriage, religion, caste etc.
provide certain rules for controlling the behavior and interaction pattern of individuals.
8. Institutions are relatively permanent: The sudden changes are not commonly reflected in
social institutions. The slow changes are found institutions and therefore they are relatively
permanent.
9. Oral and written: In early period the institutions are mainly oral, there have no a developed
language for record the rules. Certain rules are transmitted through communication like
recognize and respect others. Certain rules are written, like constitution and other written
laws.
10. Institutions are interrelated: All institutions are related to each other. Family, marriage,
caste, kinship, religion etc. are related to each other for maintenance of social order.

Social institutions are the established forms of norms and rules. Society cannot exist without
social institutions. It helps to maintain social order. It also helps to social growth and capable
to become a welfare society.

Significance of Social Institutions

Social institutions have certain function in society which helps to the smooth functioning
of society. It is a universal phenomenon, exists in all societies in all periods of history.

1. It helps to maintain social order and social welfare

2. It helps to social growth
3. It works as a control mechanism
4. Social institutions are the inevitable part of society
5. It controls social interaction of individual
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Types of Social Institutions

Social institutions are classified into primary institutions and secondary institutions on
the basis of the nature and characteristics of them. Primary institutions are the most basic
type, which helps to fulfill our basic needs like food, clothing and shelter. Family, marriage,
kinship, religion etc are important examples of primary institution. Secondary institutions are
another type of social institutions which helps to fulfill the secondary needs like education
entertainment, economic needs. It is mainly support the primary institutions for the fulfillment
of the primary needs. Economy, political institutions, education etc. are the major secondary
institutions commonly found in society. Certain important primary and secondary institutions
are briefly explain below.

Family

Family is a basic social institution existing in all periods of history. Family simply
means a social group consisting of husband, wife and their children. The term family derived
from Latin word famulus meaning servant. Family is a group of persons defined by sexual
relations, and the people in it are related through the ties of marriage and blood. Family is a
social unit as well as a biological unit. Different sociologists differently conceptualize family
that is given below.

 Nimcoff define s “family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with
or without children, or of a man or women alone with children.”
 MacIver defined “family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise
and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”

Characteristics of Family

Family is a basic social institution it has certain characteristics which are given below

1. Universality: Family is a universal institution in society. Family has existed in every

age and in every society and is found in all parts of the world. No culture or society has
ever existed without some form of family organization.
2. Emotional basis: Family is a fundamental unit of human society. It is based on certain
emotions like care, love, sharing, recognition etc.
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3. Limited size: Family is a group constituted by a limited number of people. It is a

group based on biological condition.
4. Formative influence: Family helps to form certain qualities like personality,
socialization etc. The family exercises the most profound influence over its members.
It moulds character of individuals. Family influences individual from childhood
onwards.
5. Nuclear position: The family is the nucleus of all other social groups. Marriage, parental
obligations, siblings and secondary institutions etc are included in family.The whole
social structure is built of family units.
6. Responsibility of the members: Family is not merely a temporary collection of people,
it is a functional group. Family is group constituted on the basis of marriage. Parents
and children have certain mutual responsibilities. Each and every member has
responsibilities for the maintenance of family as a primary institution.
7. Social regulation: Social regulation means the control of society over individuals for
regulating behaviour. Family is guarded by social customs and legal regulations. It
imposes certain regulations over members to control the behavior of individuals.
8. Permanent and temporary: Family as an institution is permanent and universal, while
as an association it is temporary and transitional.

Family is a basic institution in society. As an institution it has some specific

characteristics which are given above. The characteristics of family shows that the inevitability
of family in society.

Functions of Family

Family is a small social unit composed by husband wife and their children. Family
has certain characteristics like universality, nuclear position, social regulation, emotional basis;
limited size etc. sociologists opined that family has certain functions to maintainsociety.
MacIver, Ogburn and Nimcoff well known sociologists who conceptualized the functions of
family. The important functions of family are given below;

1. Affection
2. Recreational
3. Religious
4. Educational
5. Economic
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1. Affection Function: Family is a social group based on emotions like love, sympathy,
caring etc,. Man has physical and mental needs, which are satisfied in family. Parents
love their children. The love of parents discloses the caring, recognition, and mutual
sharing of feelings towards children. Through fulfilling the affection function child
become very responsible in society and they can develop good personality.
2. Recreation function: It is the second most important function of family. In case of
joint or extended families, the responsibility of children is not vested in parents alone.
Grandparents, father’s brothers, sister etc. also take care of children. The recreation
(entertainment) chances like playing, storytelling, sharing the experiences etc are
fulfilled in families so the families fulfill recreational functions.
3. Religious: Religion is a social institution. Children get primary ideas about religion
from family. Family has major role to shape the religious beliefs of children. Religion
is an agency of social control. It helps to control the behavior of children.
4. Educational: Educational function of family means the socialization of children.
Socialization simply means learning the social roles from family in early years of life.
Family is the first school and parents are the first teachers of children. The first units of
life like recognition, love, caring etc are studying children from family.
5. Economic: Economic function means the primary function of family like food,
clothing, shelter etc. Family is a social unit at the same time it is an economic unit.
Family fulfills the economic function of its members.

Even though certain changes are occurring in structure and nature of family, it exists as
a basic institution in society. Sociologists opined that the functions of family changed in
accordance with time changing especially the functions are transformed to secondary agencies
like affection function fulfilled by day care centers, recreational function by parks and other
playing spaces etc.

Types of Family

Family is an inevitable institution of society, it helps to the healthy maintenance of

society. Different sociologists conceptualize the family differently. Family divided into
different types on the basis of characteristics, structure of authority, pattern of residence,
ancestry or descent etc. Some important types are briefly explained below;

Classification on the basis of characteristics

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1. Joint family
2. Extended family
3. Nuclear family
Classification on the basis of authority structure
1. Patriarchal family
2. Matriarchal family
Classification on the basis of pattern of residence
1. Patrilocal family
2. Matrilocal family
3. Neolocal family
Classification based on lineage or descent
1. Patrilineal family
2. Matrilineal family

Classification Based on Characteristics

1. Joint family: Joint family is a type of family existed in early Indian society. The
family in India does not consist only of husband, wife and their children but also
grandparents, cousins, aunts and uncles this system is known as joint family system.
Large size, joint property, common residence, mutual rights and obligations, and
productive unit, traditional occupation etc. are the important peculiarity of joint family
system. Irawati Karve a well known Indian sociologist defined “joint family as a group
of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who
hold property in common and who participate in common worship andare related to
each other as some particular type of kindred.” The social developments like
urbanization, industrialization, spread of modern education etc. destruct the joint family
system.
2. Extended family: It is a type of family commonly found in early and present society.
Extended family constituted is by husband, wife their children and either the parents
of husband or wife.
3. Nuclear Family: It is type of family commonly found in modern industrial society.
The nuclear family constituted by husband, wife with or without children (unmarried).
Classification Based on Authority Structure
1. Patriarchal family: It is the classification of family on the basis of authority structure.
The term patriarchy is composed by two terms like Pater and archy. Among those the
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Latin word Pater means father especially male archy means rule or a governing part.
In patriarchal family the authority of family vested in a male member that may be a
joint, extended or nuclear family. This type family is commonly existed in earlier and
present day societies.
2. Matriarchal family: This is another type of family classified on the basis of authority
structure. The authority of family is vested in mother or a female member, the best
example of this type family is the families of Nair community in Kerala. But some
contradictions are found in history about the matriarchal families in Kerala, some
theorists are opined that the authority of family to a female is nominal, all decisions are
taken by male members.

Classification Based on Pattern of Residence

1. Patrilocal family: In this type family, after the marriage woman lives with her husband
and his parents, it is a common and existing type of family system.
2. Matrilocal family: Matrilocal families are constituted by husband and wife living within
wife’s family. Matriarchal families commonly following this type pattern of residence
system
3. Neo local family: The term neo means new. In this type families, the husband and
wife living in a new space. This type family is commonly found in modern industrial
societies.
Classification Based on Lineage or Descent
1. Patrilineal family: In this type family the lineage is passes through father or a male
member. The patriarchal and patrilocal families are following this type lineage system.
2. Matrilineal family: In matrilineal family the lineage passes through mother of afemale
member. The matriarchal and matrilocal families following this type lineage system.

Marriage

Marriage is a type of primary social institution. It is a universal social institution established

by the human society to control and regulate the sex life of man. It is closely connected with
the institution of family. Regulation of sexual life is the prime function of marriage, through
which facilitate social control. Edward Westermarck, a Finnish sociologist defined that
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family as the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the
mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring.”

Forms of Types of Marriage

Marriages are divided into different types based on characteristics. Monogamy and polygamy,
Polygyny, polyandry, hypergamy and hypogamy, endogamy and exogamy are the important
types of marriages commonly found in our society.

1. Monogamy/ Monogamous marriage

i)Hypergamy
ii)Hypogamy
2. Polygamy
i)Polygyny
ii) Polyandry
i)Sorrorate
ii)Levirate
3. Hypergamy (anuloma)
4. Hypogamy (pratiloma)
5. Endogamy
6. Exogamy

Monogamy and polygamy is two general terms used to refer the number of spouse,
spouse may be man or woman. Monogamy means one man or woman marries one man or
woman. Hypergamy and hypogamy are the two types of marriages coming in monogamy,
this classification mainly based on the peculiarity of social status. Hypergamy or anuloma
marriage means a lower class woman marries a higher class man. The hypogamy or pratiloma
marriage means a higher class or caste woman marries a lower class or caste man. It is claimed
that an ideal type of marriage system. Polygamy is the term used to represent one man or
woman marries one more man or woman at a time. Polygyny and polyandry is two varieties of
marriages come in polygamy. Polygyny means a man marries more than one woman at a time.
Polyandry is the opposite of polygyny that is a woman marries one more man. Sororate and
levirate is another set of polygamous marriage. The Latin word soror means sister, when
sororate marriage means a man marries one woman and his sisters at sametime. The Latin word
levir means husband’s brother, levirate marriage means a woman marries husband’s brothers
at a time. Endogamy and exogamy is a general classification of
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marriage, this compartmentalization based on the peculiarity of membership in a group of an

individual being marry. Endogamy means a man or woman marry a man or woman within his
own group. Group simply means class, clan or caste etc. Exogamy means a man or woman
marries outside of his/her own group.

Economic Institution

Economic institutions constitute the economic system. System means a structure or complex
whole of interrelated elements. Production, distribution and consumption are the economic
activities, which is operated through the economic institutions like property, wage, division
of labour, work etc. Economic institution simply means any activities related with the
production of food. Economic activities are undertaking in economic system. The economic
activities of individuals are governed by rules and procedures laid down by society. The
property one of the most important economic institution, means the goods or objects of which
an individual or group of individuals to be owner. The goods or objects owned by individual
are known as private property whereas the goods or objects are owned by govt. is called public
property. Wage an economic institution is a fixed or regular payment earned for work or
services. It is fixed by employer and employee through contracts. Division of labour is another
economic institution commonly found in society. Every human society establishes some
division of labour among its members that may be on the basis of age, sex, caste,ability,
education, qualification etc. Division of labour involves the assignment to each unit or group a
specific share of a common task. It assures the particular job to particular category of people
to do. It helps raise the efficiency in particular task at the same time it helps to functional
dependency in society. Economic institutions facilitate economic activities, which helps to the
maintenance of economic system. Economic system is an inevitable part of socialsystem. The
smooth functioning of economic system helps to the social order.

Political Institutions

Institutions are the established form of rules and norms, and it is the building blocks of society.
Political institutions are the structural elements of political system. It simply means the
organizations in a government which create enforce and apply laws. The rules and
regulations are commonly found in every society for control the behaviour of individuals. In
primitive societies the control system is informal but in modern society the regulating agencies
are formal. Government, political party, the Constitution etc. are the political institutions
constituting the political system. Government executes different laws based on
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the constitutional values. The constitution is a legal document which governs the government
of a country. Political parties are organized by people who share common interest and
ideologies. Through general election the party members come in the legislative bodies and they
can influence the political decisions and processes in a democratic State. Politicalinstitutions
constitute the political system, which is an inevitable part of social system.Political institutions
facilitate the smooth functioning of society through the controlling of relationship between
individuals.

Institutions are the established forms of norms and rules. Social institutions are the backbone
of society. It is constituted by primary and secondary institutions. Both are contribute to the
smooth functioning of society. All the systems like political system, economic system, primary
social institutions etc. form the social system, which is the subject matter of sociology.
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