Pusparaj Koirala

Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy

School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Unit I: Introduction of sociology

The term has been derived from two words. The Latin “Socious” mean companionship and the
Greek “logos” mean study. So the term literally means the study of human companionship or
association or society. It is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and
consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations,
and societies, and how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behavior is social,
the subject matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob; from
organized crime to religious cults; from the divisions of race, gender and social class to the
shared beliefs of a common culture; and from the sociology of work to the sociology of sports.

Sociology provides many distinctive perspectives on the world, generating new ideas and
critiquing the old. The field also offers a range of research techniques that can be applied to
virtually any aspect of social life: street crime and delinquency, corporate downsizing, how
people express emotions, welfare or education reform, how families differ and flourish, or
problems of peace and war.

Definition of Sociology:

Auguste Comete, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of social
phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of
investigation".

Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society".

Emile Durkheim: "Science of social institutions".

Ogburn and Nimkoff : "Sociology is the scientific study of social life".

Max Weber defines Sociology as “the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of
social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its cause and effects”.

“In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their
conditions and consequences”, says Morris Ginsberg.

On the basis of above definitions, we can conclude that sociology is the science of society,
human behavior, human interaction and relationships. It is study of societies, giving special
emphasis on modern societies. Sociology is the systematic study of social institutions; their
nature, functions and interactions, sequences of continuity and change.

Systematic study of Sociology started with Greeks, they considered men as a social animal and
the need of society. The modern sociology was coined by August Comte. He is considered as the
founder of modern sociology. He called it “Social Physics”.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Nature of Sociology:
1. Sociology is an independent science: - It is not treated and studies as a branch of any
other science like philosophy or political philosophy or history.
2. Sociology is the social science and not a physical science: - As a social science it
concentrates its attention on man, his social behavior, social activities and social life.
3. Sociology is the categorical and not a normative discipline: - Sociology "Confines itself
to statement about what is, not what should be or ought to be". As a social science
sociology is necessarily silent about questions of value and it is ethically neutral.
4. Sociology is the pure science and not an applied science: - The main aim of pure science
is the acquisition of knowledge and it is not bothered weather the acquired knowledge is
useful or can be put to use.
5. Sociology is the relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science: - Sociology
does not confine itself to the study of this society of that particular society or social
organization, or marriage, or religion, or group and so on. It is in this simple sense that
sociology is an abstract nor a concrete science.
6. Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing science: -
Sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about human interaction and
association, about the nature, from, content and the structure of human groups and
societies. It tries to make generalizations on the basis of the study of some selected
events.
7. Sociology is the general science not a special science: - The area of inquiry of sociology
is general not specialized. It is concerned with human interaction and human life in
general. It only studies human activities in a general way. Anthropology and social
psychology often claim themselves to be general social science.
8. Sociology is both rational and an empirical science: - There are two broad ways of
approach to scientific knowledge. Empiricism is the approach that emphasis experience
and the facts that result from observation and experimentation. Rationalism is stresses
reason and the theories that result from logical inference.

Relationship Between Sociology and other social sciences:

Sociology and Anthropology:

Sociology is the mother of all social sciences. Hence it has close and intimate relationship with
Anthropology. The relationship is so close that Anthropologists like A.L. Kroeber consider
Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters. They often appear as two names for the same
subject. R. Reddfield recognizes the closeness between these two social sciences.

The term Anthropology is derived from two Greek words ‘anthropos’ meaning man and ‘logos’
meaning study or science. Accordingly anthropology means study of man. As a science of man it
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

deals with man, his works and behavior. Anthropology studies the biological and cultural
development of man.

However there exists a very close and intimate relationship between Sociology and
Anthropology. Both contribute to the growth of others. Both are mutually related to each other.
Of course Sociology studies society whereas anthropology studies man. But as man and society
are mutually interrelated hence it is very difficult to distinguish two. However their close
relationship can be known from the following.

Anthropology contributes to the growth of Sociology. Without the help of anthropology the
study of Sociology can’t be complete. It is a part of Sociology. Anthropology provides
knowledge about ancient societies. To have a comprehensive understanding of present society
Sociology takes the help of anthropology. Contributions of many Anthropologists like R. Brown,
Linton, Mead and Pritchard enriches sociological knowledge’s. The origin of family, marriage,
religion etc. can be better understood through anthropological knowledge. The concepts like
cultural area, cultural traits, and cultural lag etc. sociology accept from anthropology.

Sociology accepts the anthropological conclusion that ‘racial superiority is not responsible for
mental development.’ Thus Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies.

Similarly, Sociology contributes richly towards the growth of anthropology. Anthropology

accepts many concepts of Sociology. Research and contributions of many Sociologists like
Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer is of great help to anthropology. Anthropologists greatly
benefited by the Sociological researches. Ideas and conclusions of Sociology contributes to the
research in anthropology.

Thus there exists a great deal of relationship between Sociology and Anthropology. Both study
human society and both are concerned with all kinds of social groups like families, friends, tribes
etc. Many of the ideas and concepts are used in both the discipline. Hence both are interrelated
and interdependent. But in spite of the inter-relationship both differ from each other.

Differences:

(1) Sociology is a science of society whereas anthropology is a science of man and his behavior.

(2) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of Anthropology is very limited.
Because anthropology is a part of Sociology.

(3) Sociology studies society as a whole whereas anthropology studies man as a part of society.

(4) Sociology studies civilizations which are vast and dynamic on the other hand Anthropology
studies cultures which are small and static.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

(5) Sociology studies modern, civilized and complex societies whereas Anthropology studies
ancient and non-literate societies.

(6) Sociology is concerned with social planning whereas anthropology is not concerned with
social planning. On the basis of social planning sociology make suggestion for future but
anthropology do not make any suggestion for future.

(7)In the words of Kluckhon, “The Sociological attitude has tended towards the Practical and
Present, the anthropological towards pure understanding of the past.”

Sociology and Economics:

Sociology is mother of all social sciences. Hence it has close relationship with all social sciences
and so also with Economics. The relationship of sociology with economics is very close, intimate
and personal. There exists close relationship between these two because economic relationships
bear a close relation to social activities and relationships. Likewise social relationships are also
affected by economic relationships. Economic activities to a great extent are social activities.
Hence both are mutually related.

Economics deals with economic activities of man. It is a science of wealth and choice.
According to Prof. Robbins Economics is a social “science which studies human behavior in
relation to his unlimited ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.” It is concerned
with the activities of man such as production, consumption, distribution and exchange. It also
studies the structure and functions of different economic organizations like banks, markets etc. It
is concerned with the material needs of man as well as his material welfare.

Economic welfare is a part of social welfare. For the solution of different economic problems
such as inflation, poverty, unemployment etc. economists takes the help of sociology and takes
into account the social events of that particular time. At the same time society controls the
economic activities of man. Economics is greatly benefited by the research conducted by
Sociologists like Max-weber, Pareto etc. Some economists also consider economic change as an
aspect of social change. Economic draws its generalization basing on the data provided by
Sociology. Thus economics cannot go far or develop without the help of Sociology.

Similarly Sociology also takes the help from economics. Economics greatly enriches sociological
knowledge. An economic factor greatly influences each and every aspects of social life.
Economics is a part of sociology hence without the help of economics we can’t understand
sociology properly.

Knowledge and research in the field of economics greatly contributes to sociology. Each and
every social problem has an economic cause. For the solution of social problems like dowry,
suicide etc. Sociologists take the help from economics.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Marx opines economic relations constitute the foundation of Society. Economic factors play a
very important role in every aspect of our social life that is why Sociologists concerned with
economic institutions. For this reason Sociologists like Spencer, Weber, Durkheim and others
have taken the help from economics in their analysis of social relationships.

Thus both sociology and economics are very closely related with each other. There are some
problems which are being studied by both sociologists and economists. Economic changes
results in social changes and vice versa. However, in spite of the above closeness, inter-
relationship and inter-dependence both the sciences have certain differences which are described
below:

Differences:

(1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationships whereas economics is a science of
wealth and choice.

(2) Sociology is a much younger science which has very recent origin whereas economics is
comparatively an older science.

(3) Sociology is an abstract science whereas economics is concrete in nature.

(4) Sociology is a general social science whereas economics is a special social science.

(5) The scope of sociology is very wide whereas the scope of economics is very limited.

(6) Sociology is concerned with the social activities of man whereas economics is concerned
with the economic activities of man.

(7) Society is studied as a unit of study in Sociology whereas man is taken as a unit of study in
economics.

(8) Both Sociology and economics differ from each other in respect of the methods and
techniques they use for their study.

Sociology and Political Science:

As a mother of social sciences Sociology has close and intimate relationship with all other social
science. Hence it has close relationship with political science as well. Their relationship is so
close and intimate that led G.E.C. Catlin to remark “Political Science and Sociology are two
faces or aspects of the same figure.” Similarly other scholars could not find any difference
between the two disciplines.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Political Science is a science of state and Government. It studies power, political processes,
political systems, types of government and international relations. It deals with social groups
organized under the sovereign of the state. In the words of Paul Junet, “Political Science is that
part of social science which treats the foundation of the state and principles of government.” It
studies the political activities of man. It only studies the organized society. However their inter-
relationship and inter-dependence can be known from interdependence and mutual relationship.

Sociology depends on political science. In the words of Morris Ginsberg, “Historically Sociology
has its main roots in politics and philosophy of history.” Sociology greatly benefited by the
books written by political scientists like Plato, Aristotle and Kautilya such as The Republic, The
Politics and Arthasastra respectively.

Each and every social problem has a political cause. Political Science is a part of sociology.
Hence sociology depends on political science to comprehend itself. To understand different
political events sociology takes the help from political science. Sociology to draw it’s
conclusions depends on political science. Any change in the political system or nature of power
structure brings changes in society. Hence Sociology takes the help of political science to
understand the changes in society. Hence both are inter-dependent.

Similarly political science also depends on Sociology. Political Science is a part of sociology. To
understand the part it is necessary to understand the whole. Almost all political problems has a
social cause and for the solution of these political problems political science takes the help of
sociology.

State frames its rules, regulations and laws on the basis of social customs, tradition and values.
Without Sociological background the study of political science will be incomplete. Political
Scientists largely benefited by the researches and research methods of the Sociologist. Some
consider political science as a branch of Sociology. State is considered as a social group hence is
a subject of Sociology.

Besides, there are some common topics which are being studied by both the subjects. These
topics are War, Propaganda, authority, communal riots and law. With the help of both political
science and sociology a new subject comes into existence which is known as political sociology.
Some political events like war are also significant social events.

Thus both political science and sociology contribute to each other. But in spite of their inter-
relationship and inter-dependence both the sciences differ from each other in the following way.

Differences:

(1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationship whereas political science is a science
of state and government.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

(2) The scope of sociology is very wide but scope of political science is limited.

(3) Sociology is a general science but political science is a special science.

(4) Sociology studied organized, unorganized and disorganized society whereas political science
studies only politically organized society.

(5) Sociology studies the social activities of man whereas political science studies political
activities of man.

Sociology and History:

As a mother of social sciences sociology has close and intimate relationship with all other social
sciences. Accordingly it has close relationship with history. Because present society bears
symbols of past. Relationship between the two is so close and intimate that scholars like G. Von
Bulow have refused to acknowledge sociology as a science distinct from history.

History studies the important past events and incidents. It records men past life and life of
societies in a systematic and chronological order. It also tries to find out the causes of past
events. It also studies the past political, social and economic events of the world. It not only
studies the past but also establishes relations with present and future. That is why it is said that
“History is the microscope of the past, the horoscope of the present and telescope of the future.

However, both the sciences are closely inter-related and interdependent on each other. Both
study the same human society. Their mutual dependence led G.H. Howard to remark that,
“History is past Sociology and Sociology is present history.” Both takes help from each other. At
the same time one depends on the other for its own comprehension.

History helps and enriches Sociology. History is the store house of knowledge from which
Sociology gained a lot. History provides materials sociologists use. History is a record of past
social matters, social customs and information about different stages of life. Sociology uses this
information. Books written by historians like A. Toynbee are of great use for Sociologists. To
know the impact of a particular past event sociology depends on history.

Similarly Sociology also provides help to history and enriches it. A historian greatly benefited
from the research conducted by Sociologists. Historians now study caste, class and family by
using sociological data. Sociology provides the background for the study of history.

Now history is being studied from Sociological angle. Every historical event has a social cause
or social background. To understand that historical event history need the help from Sociology
and Sociology helps history in this respect. Sociology provides facts on which historians rely on.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Thus history and Sociology are mutually dependent on each other. History is now being studied
from Sociological angle and Sociology also now studied from historical point of view. Historical
sociology now became a new branch of Sociology which depends on history. Similarly
Sociological history is another specialized subject which based on both the Sciences. But in spite
of the above close relationship and inter-dependence both the sciences differ from each other
from different angles which are described below.

Differences:

(1) Sociology is a science of society and is concerned with the present society. But history deals
with the past events and studies the past society.

(2) Sociology is a modern or new subject whereas history is an older social science.

(3) Sociology is abstract whereas history is concrete in nature.

(4) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of history is limited. Sociology
includes history within its scope.

(5) Sociology is an analytical science whereas history is a descriptive science.

(6) Attitude of sociology and history differ from each other. Sociology studies a particular event
as a social phenomenon whereas history studies a particular event in its entirety.

(7) Sociology is a general science whereas history is a special science.

Sociology and Psychology:

Sociology is a science of society. Hence it is closely related to other social sciences and so also
with psychology. Sociology and Psychology are very closely interlinked interrelated and
interdependent. Relationship between the two is so close and intimate that Psychologist like Karl
Pearson refuses to accept both as special science. Both depend on each other for their own
comprehension. Their relationship will be clear if we analyze their inter-relationship and mutual
dependency.

Sociology is a science of social phenomena and social relationship. It is a science of social group
and social institutions. It is a science of collective behavior. It studies human behavior in groups.
But psychology is a science of mind or mental processes.

It is a science of human behavior. It analyses attitudes, emotions, perception, process of learning

and values of individuals and process of personality formation in society. In the words of
Thouless ‘Psychology is the positive science of human experience and behavior.’ But both the
sciences are closely related to each other which can be known from the following.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Sociology receives help from Psychology. Psychology is a part of sociology hence without the
help from Psychology Sociology can’t understand itself fully and properly. There are many
psychologists like Freud, MacDougal and others who have enrich Sociology in many respects.
They opines that the whole social life could be reduced finally to psychological forces. Each and
every social problems and social phenomenon must have a psychological basis for the solution of
which sociology requires the help from psychology. A new branch of knowledge has developed
with the combination of sociology and psychology which is known as social psychology.

Similarly, psychology depends on Sociology to comprehend itself fully. Psychology also

requires help from sociology in many cases. As human mind and personality is being influenced
by social environment, culture, customs and traditions hence psychology take the help from
Sociology to understand this.

To understand human nature and behavior properly psychology depends on sociology. There are
many Psychological problems which must have a Social Cause. Psychology requires the help
from Sociology to understand these social problems. A research in Sociology richly contributes
to psychology. Contributions and theories of many Sociologists also are of great help to
Psychologists.

Thus Sociology and Psychology are mutually dependent on each other. One can’t comprehend
itself without the help from others. Besides there are some common area of study such as social
disorganization, public opinion etc. which are being studied by both Sociologists and
Psychologists. Social Psychology a branch of

Psychology is developed with the combination of the two. In the words of Kretch and
Crutchfield Social Psychology is the science of behavior of the individuals in society.

Differences:

However, in spite of the mutual relationship and dependence both the sciences differ from each
other in the following ways.

(1) Sociology is a science of society but Psychology is a science of mind.

(2) Scope of Sociology is wide whereas scope of Psychology is limited.

(3) Society is the unit of study in sociology but individual is the unit of study in case of
Psychology.

(4) Sociology studies social processes whereas Psychology studies mental processes.

(5) Sociology studies and analyses human behavior from Sociological angle whereas psychology
studies and analyses human behavior from Psychological angles.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Emergence of Sociology:

Plato and Aristotle, Confucius, Khaldun, and Voltaire all set the stage for modern sociology.
Since ancient times, people have been fascinated by the relationship between individuals and the
societies to which they belong. Many topics studied in modern sociology were also studied by
ancient philosophers in their desire to describe an ideal society, including theories of social
conflict, economics, social cohesion, and power. In the eighteenth century, Age of
Enlightenment philosophers developed general principles that could be used to explain social
life. Thinkers such as John Locke, Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, and Thomas Hobbes responded to
what they saw as social ills by writing on topics that they hoped would lead to social reform.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) wrote about women’s conditions in society. Her works were
long ignored by the male academic structure, but since the 1970s, Wollstonecraft has been
widely considered the first feminist thinker of consequence. The early nineteenth century saw
great changes with the Industrial Revolution, increased mobility, and new kinds of employment.
It was also a time of great social and political upheaval with the rise of empires that exposed
many people—for the first time—to societies and cultures other than their own. Millions of
people moved into cities and many people turned away from their traditional religious beliefs.

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) is considered by many to be the father of sociology. Comte

originally studied to be an engineer, but later became a pupil of social philosopher Claude Henri
de Rouvroy Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825). They both thought that social scientists could
study society using the same scientific methods utilized in natural sciences. Comte also believed
in the potential of social scientists to work toward the betterment of society. He held that once
scholars identified the laws that governed society, sociologists could address problems such as
poor education and poverty. Comte named the scientific study of social patterns positivism. He
described his philosophy in a series of books called The Course in Positive Philosophy (1830–
1842) and A General View of Positivism (1848). He believed that using scientific methods to
reveal the laws by which societies and individuals interact would usher in a new “positivist” age
of history. While the field and its terminology have grown, sociologists still believe in the
positive impact of their work.

Social Imagination:

Sociologist C. Wright Mills, who created the concept and wrote the definitive book about it,
defined the sociological imagination as “the vivid awareness of the relationship between
experience and the wider society." ‘Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society
can be understood without understanding both.’

Mills argues that people sometimes feel “trapped” by their troubles or their personal
circumstances. For example, people have obligations to their families, they have commitments at
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

work, their actions are restricted by fear of gossip in their friendship groups, or they might feel as
if they have to live their lives in particular ways because society forces this upon us.

At the same time, most people understand their lives as being unique. Falling in love, the type of
jobs we end up pursuing or those we miss out on, the decision to live alone or the types of
families we form – these are all choices that are mediated (or shaped) by the time and place we
live. People rarely think about their life choices – nor the lives of others – as the outcome of
institutions and history.

Societies have a tendency to view certain lives negatively: being homeless, being unemployed,
teen pregnancies, addiction, incarceration – people often blame the individual for pathways that
“deviate” from the norm.

Some people might think about a handful of external influences as having direct impact on their
lives – religion, family or perhaps the media – but they do not always see the complex interplay
between various social forces. Sociology makes this connection between the individual
(biography) and broader social structures. This is why Mills says that in order to understand an
individual we must understand history and vice versa.

Subject Matter of Sociology or Research Domain:

Sociology is a science with its own subject matter, ‘social life as a whole’ and deals with more
general principles underlying all social phenomena. Social phenomena is the subject matter of
sociology. The basic social phenomena, the unit for sociological analysis is commonly identified
as interaction between two or more human beings. Where there is interaction, the participants are
said to be in social relationship. Human interaction and interrelation become the subject matter
of sociology. When relationships endure, they form social groups. The social group is commonly
recognized to be one of the major; subjects of sociological study. The social group is a system
that is a structure consisting of parts which, without losing their identity and individuality,
constitute a whole transcending the parts.

Relevance of Sociology in Management and Administration:

To excel in business, you need more than a solid grasp of math and economics. Business requires
an understanding of people -- large populations in particular. Sociology provides the educational
background needed for managers to understand their employees and customers. Business leaders
that understand sociology are able to anticipate customer needs and respond to employee
problems in ways others cannot.

Analytical Process

Studying sociology helps to develop your analytical thinking and capabilities. Sociologists
analyze qualitative and quantitative data to determine the effects of phenomena on a population.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

For instance, a sociologist may discover that a country has an age gap due to an uncontrolled
epidemic that affects the country's ability to compete globally. This analytical method of
thinking helps those in business with the ability to research market data and eventually draw
conclusions from that data.

Handling Employees

A background in sociology gives business leaders and human resource managers an advantage
when dealing with employees in the workplace. Sociologists study (and are often aware of) the
cultural and social aspects that shape an individual. With this background, those in business can
avoid alienating employees or hurting company loyalty. For example, the company may have a
large number of employees that practice a particular religion. If this religion states that its
followers must observe a sabbath on weekends, you cannot reasonably ask those employees to
work on weekends, based on your background in sociology.

Market Opportunities

Sociologists understand that certain phenomena create conditions that influence groups of
people. For example, if birth rates drop within a country, that country's population will
eventually "age" and require increased services for the elderly. Those in business with sociology
backgrounds can identify such factors and the opportunities created within a population. For
instance, a business leader can look at a country that was previously ravaged by war or disease
and know that its people require basic infrastructure offerings and access to education and
medical facilities. If your company specializes in medical supplies, this is an opportunity; if your
company sells luxury vehicles, you would look elsewhere and identify a population that requires
your services.

Public Relations

Sociology is fundamental to the public relations department of any major company. A PR

person's background in sociology tells her that certain actions by the company will affect its
customers based on their cultural and economic backgrounds. For example, if your company
conducts business in another part of the world, your PR person must know the history of that
area to tailor the message and image of the company. The PR person, for instance, would not
create a press release that stresses the independent nature of the company in a culture that places
a large focus on family.

Social Research
Social Research is a composite of two words “re means again” and search which means to find
or to dig or to discover. So the whole word means a process of finding or digging again & again.
Literally, research means investigation undertaken in order to discover new facts or additional
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

information. In pure and social sciences, research means to discover answers to questions by the
applications of scientific methods and procedures.

Goode &Hatt: It is a systematic method of discovering new facts and verifying old ones with
their sequence interrelationship and caused explanation.

Webster’s Dictionary: “defines it as a careful and critical investigation is the light of newly
discovered facts.

Roger Bennet: “Research is the discovering of facts through systematic and scientific process.

Fogg: “It is the systematic process of pre-planned inquiry”.

Social research may be defined as “a method of studying, analyzing and conceptualizing social
life in order to extend, modify, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of a theory or in practice of an art.” Thus, social research has a reference to an
investigation focused on social phenomena processes and organization which aims to discover
new facts about social reality or verify old ones, to analyze their sequence, interrelationships,
causal connections and laws governing them by means of logical and systematized methods.

It is clear that social research does not aim at finding the ultimate truths. Rather, it aims to
understand and clarify the behaviour of man, the social world he lives in, the relationships he
maintains, the influences which are exerted on him and the effects these have upon him and
subsequently, upon the social institutions of which he is a part and through which his behaviour
is mediated.

Characteristics of Social research:

• Accuracy & Precision

• Verifiability
• Evidence of Facts
• Objectivity
• Reliability & Validity
• Qualification
• Measurability
• Recording and Reporting
• Centers around a Problem
• Original Works

Major Steps of Social Research / Proposal

1. Introduction /Background/ Selection of the Study Topic:

 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

• Describe the topic and how the researcher developed interest in the present
research topic.
• Providing necessary background and setting to put problem in proper context and
fixing basis for study. It sets the stage for the research and puts your topic in
perspective.

2. Statement of the problem:

Research Problem means questions that researchers want to answer or any assumption or
assertion that we want to challenge or to investigate. These questions can become a research
problem or research topic for your study. However, most importantly, keep in mind that not
all questions can become a research problem.

• Statement of the general problem to be investigated, not the problem of the researcher.
• It should raise question about a relationship between variables.
• The relationship between variables should be stated and explained clearly.
• Research questions are based on the objectives and statement of the problems.

3. Objectives of the Research Study:

Objectives are the hidden treasure oOf the research. It is drawn from research problem.
Research objectives describe concisely what the research is trying to achieve. They
summarize the accomplishments a researcher wishes to achieve through the project and
provides direction to the study.

• Objectives should be specific, measurable and researchable.

• There must be broad and specific objectives of the research.
• Based on the objectives research questions or hypothesis are raised.

4. Review of Related Literature:

The next step is to study available literature on the topic-all the previously work on the topic
including research thesis, papers, books, reports and publications. The purpose of the reviewing
the related literatures is:

• To understand various aspects of topics required for conducting the research.

• To understand the nature of work done in the topic.
• To identify research gaps-those areas which have not explored by others.
• To make a theoretical background for the study-as it is added as a chapter to your
final report.

5. Significance or Rationale of Research:

 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

• The researcher should clearly elaborate rationality or reason for opting that sort of
research.
• Researcher will have to justify and persuade that the study needed.
• Indicate how the results can be generalized beyond the bounds of the study and will be
helpful to the target group.

6. Limitation of the study:

• The limitations of a study are its flaws or shortcomings which could be the result
of unavailability of resources, small sample size, flawed methodology, etc. No
study is completely flawless or inclusive of all possible aspects.
• What are the limitations of the study are described in this section. Procedural
limitation are also explained.

7. Organization of the study:

• The proposed research will be divided into how many chapters?

8. Research Methodology/ Procedure:

Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select,

process, and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology section
allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall validity and reliability.

• Location of the study area

• Research Design
• Sampling design
• Nature and source of data
• Unit of analysis
• Data collection techniques
• Data analysis

9. Summary, Conclusion and recommendations:

The foremost objective of summary is to summarize or present the research study

including the research design being adopted, the theoretical and conceptual perspective of
the study and research methodology. Also the major concepts, hypothesis and the
findings of the whole study are presented in concise.

The conclusions end up the research and present in very brief the foremost finding of the
whole research at the hand. As a follow up to the interpretation of the data, conclusion are
made to as to how well they assist in attempting to solve the problem, and how well the
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

purpose of the study was accomplished. The researcher should freely express his or her
own conclusion and to make generalizations.

Major Types of Research:

The research is broadly classified into two main classes: 1. Fundamental or basic research and 2.
Applied research. Basic and applied researches are generally of two kinds: normal research and
revolutionary research. In any particular field, normal research is performed in accordance with a
set of rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is well accepted by the scientists
working in that field. In addition, the basic and applied researches can be quantitative or
qualitative or even both (mixed research).

1. Fundamental or basic research:

Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular
event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or investigation of
some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic research. Basic
researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned with
solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It
provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and
logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The
outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research.

Basic research

• Seeks generalization
• Aims at basic processes
• Attempts to explain why things happen
• Tries to get all the facts
• Reports in technical language of the topic

2. Applied research:

In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories
and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research are
essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. A research, the
outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research. Such a research
is of practical use to current activity.

Applied research

• Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize

• Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

• Tries to say how things can be changed

• Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
• Reports in common language

Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of research bearing some
characteristics feature as follows:

Quantitative research

• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses numbers.

• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
• The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.

Qualitative research

• It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.

• Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
• Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
• It is exploratory.
• It investigates the why and how of decision making.

Mixed research

Mixed research- research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or
paradigm characteristics. Nature of data is mixture of variables, words and images.

Other types of research

Exploratory Research:

Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group interviews. The
exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for better
understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best methods
to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad in focus and
rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues.The objective of exploratory research
is to identify key issues and key variables.

Descriptive research

The descriptive research is directed toward studying “what” and how many off this “what”.
Thus, it is directed toward answering questions such as, “What is this?”
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Explanatory research

• Its primary goal is to understand or to explain relationships.

• It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or characteristics off
individuals, groups, situations, or events.
• Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are related to each other).
• Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.

Longitudinal Research

Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points in time.
Longitudinal studies may take the form of:

• Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g. organizational

absenteeism rates during the course of a year
• Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates for the sales
department;
• Panel study- traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career tracks over the period
1990 – 2000 for the same starting cohort.

While longitudinal studies will often be more time consuming and expensive than cross-sectional
studies, they are more likely to identify causal relationships between variables.

Cross-sectional Research

One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once, during a period of
days, weeks or months. Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or descriptive in purpose.
They are designed to look at how things are now, without any sense of whether there is a history
or trend at work.

Action research

• Fact findings to improve the quality of action in the social world

Last of all, it is needless to say that scientific research helps us in many ways:

• A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or

an industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical
or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution.
• Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the
needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs
helps a government to prepare a budget.
• It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving problems.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

• Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena
and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through
research.
• It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve
the quality of products.
• Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
• It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new
stars, etc.
• Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in
them.
• Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena
and seek solution to social problems.

Research Tools and Techniques of Data collection

Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find
answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.

Data collection methods can be divided into two categories: secondary methods of data
collection and primary methods of data collection.

The approach of data collection is different for different fields of study,depending on the
required information.In most cases, data collection is the primary and most important step for
research, irrespective of the field of research.

Most popular means of data collection methods are interview, observation, schedule-um-
questionnaire, content analysis, case study, genealogy, story, life history et. Data can be
collected from telephone, fa, email , internet, letters and other sources as well.

Interview

The interview methodology is one of the oldest of the research methodologies. An interview is a
direct conversation between the researcher and the subject. It takes place through a process in
which the subject is asked a series of questions to which they are free to respond as they wish.
There is no ideal answer to a question. Interviews involve a more direct interaction between the
researcher and the respondent than questionnaires. Interviews can either be conducted face to
face, via phone, video link or social media. This method is useful in the collection of data
revealing the values, experiences, perspectives, and views of the population under study.

Types of interview
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Structured or formal interviews are those in which the interviewer asks the interviewee the
same questions in the same way to different respondents. This will typically involve reading out
questions from a pre-written and pre-coded structured questionnaire.

Unstructured or Informal interviews (also called discovery interviews) are more like a guided
conversation. The interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions from respondent to
respondent, so they can follow whatever lines of enquiry they think are most appropriated,
depending on the responses given by each respondent.

Semi-Structured interviews are those in which respondents have a list of questions, but they are
free to ask further, differentiated questions based on the responses given.

Group interviews – Interviews can be conducted either one to one (individual interviews) or in
a group, in which the interviewer interviews two or more respondents at a time. Group
interviews have their own unique strengths and limitations which we'll return to later.

Focus groups are a type of group interview in which respondents are asked to discuss certain
topics. Personal Interview are types of interview with person one to one.

Interview from Mass Media like telephone, internet, et.

Questionnaire:

A questionnaire is a list of pre-set questions. A useful tool for conducting asocial survey because
it can be used to gather information from a large number of people.

If administered directly by the researcher to the subject in person then this is the same as a
structured interview; however, questionnaires can also be completed independently
(selfcompletion questionnaires) and therefore administered in bulk, through the post or
electronically for example. The method can use closed or open questions or indeed a mixture of
the two, depending on what sort of data is desired and how the researcher intends to analyze it.

Types:

1. Open-ended questionnaire: Open questions do not limit the possible answers that the
responder can give, producing qualitative data which is generally considered to be higher in
validity. This is because it can be detailed and the respondent can give their own views, rather
than be limited by the assumptions of the researcher.

2. Closed Ended questions Closed questions are those with a limited number of possible
responses, often "yes" or "no". Closed questions help to make data easier to analyze and more
reliable. This is because closed questions produce quantitative data.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

3. Structured Questionnaires: A structured questionnaires helps collect quantitative data. In this

case, the questionnaire is designed in a way that it collects very specific type of information. It
can be used to initiate a formal enquiry on collect data to prove or disprove a prior hypothesis.

4. Unstructured Questionnaires: An unstructured questionnaire collects qualitative data. The

questionnaire in this case has a basic structure and some branching questions but nothing that
limits the responses of a respondent. The questions are more open-ended.

5. Mixed questionnaires: It consist of closed as well as open-ended questions. These are normally
used in the field of social research.

6 .Pictorial questionnaire: It is used in promotion of interest to answer questions. These are

mostly used as study material for children or senior people.

7. Matrix Questionnaire A matrix question is a group of multiple-choice questions displayed in a

grid of rows and columns. The rows present the questions to the respondents, and the columns
offer a set of predefined answer choices that apply to each question in the row. Very often the
answer choices are offered in a scale.

Case Study

A case study is a research method that relies on a single case rather than a population or sample.
When researchers focus on a single case, they can make detailed observations over a long period
of time, something that cannot be done with large samples without costing a lot of money. Case
studies are also useful in the early stages of research when the goal is to explore ideas, test, and
perfect measurement instruments, and to prepare for a larger study. The case study research
method is popular not just within the field of sociology, but also within the fields of
anthropology, psychology, education, political science, clinical science, social work, and
administrative science.

A case study is where sociologists investigate in great detail a particular individual or group, as
opposed to trying to gather a representative sample from the target population. Normally a case
study will feature methodological pluralism (using a range of research methods to achieve
triangulation) and they are often longitudinal studies (the researcher regularly revisiting the case
over a long period of time). Advantages of case studies include the ability to gather qualitative
and quantitative data and the comparative lack of expense compared with attempting the same
research with a large sample. Disadvantages would be the inability to ensure the reliability of
the data and the extent to which it could be generalisable.

Within sociology, case studies are typically conducted with qualitative research methods. They
are considered micro rather than macro in nature, and one cannot necessarily generalize the
findings of a case study to other situations. However, this is not a limitation of the method, but a
strength. Through a case study based on ethnographic observation and interviews, among other
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

methods, sociologists can illuminate otherwise hard to see and understand social relations,
structures, and processes. In doing so, the findings of case studies often stimulate further
research.

Observation

The observation method is described as a method to observe and describe the behavior of a
subject. As the name suggests, it is a way of collecting relevant information and data by
observing. It is also referred to as a participatory study because the researcher has to establish a
link with the respondent and for this has to immerse himself in the same setting as theirs. Only
then can he use the observation method to record and take notes.

Observation method is used in cases where you want to avoid an error that can be a result of
bias during evaluation and interpretation processes. It is a way to obtain objective data by
watching a participant and recording it for analysis at a later stage.

Sociologists use observation as a research method where they watch people in a social
situation and record what is said and done. There are a number of different kinds of observation,
for example they can be overt or covert (the people may or may not know that they are being
observed) and they can be participant or nonparticipant (the researcher may or may not play an
active part in what is being observed). The different types of observation all have their own
strengths and limitations.

Participant observation

Participant observation was first introduced by Prof. Edward Winder Man. It means the activities
of a group in which an observer himself participate and note the situation. He willingly mixes
with the group and perform his activities as an observer not merely a participator who criticize
the situation. In other words he takes place and share the activities with his group. For example
when we study the rural and urban conditions of Asian people, we have to go there and watched
what is going on. The best philosophy of participant observation is that we watch the phenomena
not to ask. The actual behavior of the group can be observed only by participant observation not
by any other method.

Non-Participant Observation

The non-participant observation has a lack of participation of the observer in his group activities.
He either watch the phenomena from a distance or participate in the group but never in its
activities. He only sit in the group but do not interest in the process. The difference between
participant & non-participant observation is that, in the former the observer himself take part in a
group and become the member of that group also participate in their activities with full fledge
while the latter refers to the less or no participation of the observer in his group, their
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

membership and activities. He watch from a distance but do not have active eye sight that what is
going on in the field of research.

Quasi Observation:

If a researcher observes the society or community activities within the given limit time, resource
sometimes as a participant observer and sometimes as a non-participant observation, it becomes
quasi observation.

Life histories

Life history is the first hand method of collecting data on multiple aspects of individuals. Life
histories are also sometimes obtained using other social research techniques including archive
research, participant observation, longitudinal study and experimental research. Whatever
method is employed, however, it is essential that subjects is able to express the factors that are
significant in their life history.

life history was seen as a valuable research technique which could provide a view of history
often unrecorded by documents which placed ordinary people ‘centre stage’. Life history
material is often criticized for being idiosyncratic, non-generalizable, 'non-scientific' and
unsuitable for developing causal explanations. The significance of life history data is, like any
other data, dependent upon the methodological and theoretical analysis being undertaken. The
emergence at the turn of the 20th century of autobiographical reflection as a form of social
research is one of the more trivial forms of life history.

Content analysis

Content analysis is a method used to analyze qualitative data (non-numerical data). In its most
common form it is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and to transform it
into quantitative data (numerical data). The technique can be used for data in many different
formats, for example interview transcripts, film, and audio recordings.

The researcher conducting a content analysis will use ‘coding units’ in their work. These units
vary widely depending on the data used, but an example would be the number of positive or
negative words used by a mother to describe her child’s behaviour or the number of swear words
in a film. It is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units are not open to
interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers. It is
an easy technique to use and is not too time consuming. It allows a statistical analysis to be
conducted if required as there is usually. Quantitative data as a result of the procedure.

Field Work Study

 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Sociologists seldom study
subjects in their own offices or laboratories. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They
meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gathering primary
data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey. It is a research
method suited to an interpretive framework rather than to the scientific method.

To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and
observe, participate, or experience those worlds. In field work, the sociologists, rather than the
subjects, are the ones out of their element. The researcher interacts with or observes a person or
people and gathers data along the way. The key point in field research is that it takes place in the
subject’s natural environment, whether it’s a coffee shop or tribal village, a homeless shelter or
the DMV, a hospital, airport, mall, or beach resort.

Methods of Field Research

Field research is typically conducted in 5 distinctive methods. They are:

• Direct Observation
• Participant Observation
• Ethnography
• Qualitative Interviews
• Case Study

Field Site Selection:

Researcher must select the field as per availability of the research respondents. For e.g. If one
needs to study about polyandry then the researcher must choose mountain region where
polyandry is practised.

Preparation for Field Work

It may take short or long time in field site. Researcher may be or may not be familiar about the
field site, culture and other details so one need to be fully prepared before entering the field.
Preparation for field includes:

A. Intellectual Preparation:

• Study about research design, methods and preparation

• Review of related literatures
• Knowledge about field site: social , economic, political, cultural , environmental aspects.
• Availability of required training to field staffs
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

• Consultation with experts.

B. Psychological Preparation
• Confidence of working with community
• Confidence of maintaining unbiased conduct
• Adaptability
• Patience
C. Methodological Preparation
• Sampling and determination of field
• Selection of proper research methods
• Development of research design

D. Physical Preparation
• Management of lodge, food, clothes, medicine, gadgets et.
• Preparation of stationary
• Geography setting
• Research staffs

Contribution in classical Sociologist

Emile Durkheim
 Émile Durkheim, one of the founding thinkers of sociology, was born in France on April
15, 1858.
 most of his theories were devoted to the study of social order. His opinion was that social
disorders were not the necessary parts of the modern world and could be reduced by
social reforms. Some of the important works of Durkheim’s are the following.
 (i) The Suicide-1897
 (ii) The Social Division of Labour-1893
 (iii) The Elementary Forms of religious life)—1912

Division of Labor
 Durkheim's concept of the division of labor focused on the shift in societies from a
simple society to one that is more complex. He argued that traditional societies were
made up of homogenous people that were more or less the same in terms of values,
religious beliefs, and backgrounds. Modern societies, in contrast, are made up of a
complex division of labor, beliefs, and backgrounds.
 In traditional societies, the collective consciousness ruled, social norms were strong, and
social behavior was well regulated. In modern societies, common consciousness was less
obvious, and the regulation of social behavior was less punitive and more restitutive,
aiming to restore normal activity to society.
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Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Mechanical and Organic Solidarity

 In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the
homogeneity of individuals. People feel connected through similar work, educational and
religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in “traditional”
and small-scale societies, and it is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks.
 Organic solidarity is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each
other in more advanced societies. It comes from the interdependence that arises from
specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development that
occurs in “modern” and “industrial” societies. Although individuals perform different
tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity
of societydepends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks.
“Organic” refers to the interdependence of the component parts. Thus, social solidarity is
maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts
(e.g., farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that
allow the farmer to produce the food). As a simple example, farmers produce food to feed
factory workers who produce tractors that, in the end, allow the farmer to produce more
food.

According to Durkheim, Religion refers to:

“A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things that is to say, things set apart
and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite in one simple moral community called church,
all those who adhere to it.”

 In the Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) Durkheim argued that all societies
divide the world into two basic categories: the sacred and the profane:
• The profane refers to mundane ordinary life: our daily routine/ grind of getting up in the
morning, doing our ablutions, going to college, eating our daily Nachos, and doing the
dishes.
• The sacred refers to anything which transcends the humdrum of everyday life: which
typically take the form of collective representations which are set apart from society
(spiritual places such as churches or mosques are the most obvious examples of ‘sacred’
spaces.)
• Durkheim saw Totemism as one of the earliest and simplest form of religious practice.

Suicide & its Types:

According to Durkheim, suicide is not an individual act nor a personal action. It is caused by
some power which is over and above the individual or super individual. He viewed “all classes
of deaths resulting directly or indirectly from the positive or negative acts of the victim itself
who knows the result they produce” Having defined the phenomenon Durkheim dismisses the
psychological explanation. Many doctors and psychologists develop the theory that majority of
people who take their own life are in a pathological state, but Durkheim emphasises that the
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

force, which determines the suicide, is not psychological but social. He concludes that suicide is
the result of social disorganisation or lack of social integration or social solidarity.
Types of Suicide
Emile Durkheim classified different types of suicides on the basis of different types of
relationship between the actor and his society.
(1) Egoistic suicide: when a man becomes socially isolated or feels that he has no place in the
society he destroys himself. This is the suicide of self-centred person who lacks altruistic
feelings and is usually cut off from main stream of the society.
(2) Altruistic suicide: occurs when individuals and the group are too close and intimate. This
kind of suicide results from the over integration of the individual into social proof, for example –
Sati customs, Dannies warriors.
(3) Anomic suicide: is due to certain breakdown of social equilibrium, such as, suicide after
bankruptcy or after winning a lottery. In other words, anomic suicide takes place in a situation
which has cropped up suddenly.
(4) Fatalistic suicide: is due to overregulation in society. Under the overregulation of a society,
when a servant or slave commits suicide, when a barren woman commits suicide, it is the
example of fatalistic suicide

Max Weber
 A German sociologist, philosopher, political economist and Jurist, Maximilian Karl Emil
Max Weber came in this world on 21st of April 1864 and took his last breath on 14th of
June 1920. He is also known a Max Weber. He was said to be an influencer and his ideas
caused many social theories and social research.
 He is best known for his thesis of the “Protestant ethic,”
relating Protestantism to capitalism, and for his ideas on bureaucracy.
 Max Weber wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904–05), Economy
and Society (1922), General Economic History (1923), and other works.
 Interpretive sociology is an approach developed by Max Weber that centers on the
importance of meaning and action when studying social trends and problems. This
approach diverges from positivistic sociology by recognizing that the subjective
experiences, beliefs, and behavior of people are equally important to study as are
observable, objective facts.
 Max Weber published his highly-influential work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism in 1904. The focus of Weber's study was that religion was an engine of social
change. Weber identified features of the Calvinist protestant religion which he argued
had the unintended consequence of playing a major role in kick-starting capitalism.
 Calvinism was a protestant religious movement from the 16th century. The two features
of Calvinism that Weber considered to be especially influential in the development of
capitalism were ascetism and predestination.
 Ascetism is a philosophy of self-denial: the idea that Christians should lead an austere
life, without luxuries. This may seem an odd philosophy to kick-start an economic system
based on the accumulation of ever greater wealth, but it does make sense – wait for it!
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

Max Weber Bureaucracy Theory

 Max Weber defines bureaucracy as a highly structured, formalized, and also an
impersonal organization.
 He also instituted the belief that an organization must have a defined hierarchical
structure and clear rules, regulations, and lines of authority which govern it. Max Weber
bureaucracy ideally has the following characteristics:
• Specialization of labor
• A formal set of rules and regulations
• Well-defined hierarchy within the organization
• Impersonality in the application of rules

Auguste Comte
 Auguste Comte was born in Montellier of Southern France in January 1, 1798 and died in
1857.
 He was the first thinker who realized the need for a distinct science of human society.
 He is regarded as the father of sociology. He is regarded as the father not because of his
significant contributions to the subject but because of creating sociology as a science of
society or science of human behavior.
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

 Comte first gave the name “Social Physics” to the science invented by him but later he
coined the word “Sociology a hybrid term compounded of Latin and Greek words to
describe the new science.
 The period during which Comte took his birth in France, was very critical. Because there
was chaos in France as the French World of thought was divided into two parts. One part
was dominated by the revolutionary thinkers while the other part was dominated by the
religious thinkers. But Comte opposed both these ways of thinking and gave emphasis to
scientific outlook and scientific analysis. He organized and classified the social thought
prevailing before his times. Comte has many important works to his credit.
 His contribution to sociology can be divided into four categories. They are namely:-
(1) Classification and ordering of social sciences.
(2) The nature, method and scope of sociology.
(3) The law of three stages.
(4) The plan for social reconstruction.
(5) Positivism.

He defined sociology as a positive science. Positivism is the search for "invariant laws of the
natural and social world." Comte identified three basic methods for discovering these invariant
laws, observation, experimentation, and comparison. Comte discussed the difference between
social statistics and social dynamics; which have been renamed social structure and social
change. Comte’s ideas have had a major role in developing structural functionalism. His major
goal was to integrate theory and practice.
The Law of Three Stages:
 According to Comte it is the universal law of intellectual development. According to him
“Each branch of our knowledge passes through three different theoretical conditions; the
theological or fictitious; the metaphysical or abstract; and the scientific or positive.” This
is known as the law of three stages because, according to it, human thinking has
undergone three separate stages in its evolution and development.
 He focused mainly on stages in the development and progress of human mind and
stressed that these stages co-related with parallel stages in the development of social
order, social units, social organisation and material conditions of human life.
a. Theological or fictitious stage:
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

This was the first of the three stages that explained the world before 1300 A.D. This stage was
characterized by the orthodox ideas that everything is controlled by a supernatural power. In the
primitive time, it was believed that the social and physical society is created by God. For
instance, the lack or excess of rain referred to the displeasing nature of God. The first law was
further divided into 3 major stages:
• Fetishism: At this stage, primitive men believed that God resides in each and every
object. Hence, they used to worship non-living things like stones, rocks, wood, etc.
• Polytheism: This stage is advanced Fetishism. It is a stage that defined that the number of
Gods increased with the number of objects. For example, God of water, God of soil, etc.
• Monotheism: This is the most advanced stage of the first law which states that there is
only one God.
(b) Metaphysical or Abstract Stage:
• This stage characterized the world between 1300 and 1800 A.D. It was the modification
of the Theological stage. People started thinking rationally and replaced imagination with
reason. This stage knocked out the concept of concrete God and emphasized on abstract
principles.
(c) Positive Stage:
• This stage was characterized by the growth of Science and marked the era following 1800
A.D. People gave up their beliefs about God and initiated researching over the wide field
of science. They started believing more on statistics and factual data and converted their
perception to look at the world from imaginative to intellectual.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

“He established the hypothesis that society, is like a biological organism and then proceeded to
defend it against all objections with great logical force.
Similarities between Biological and Social Organism
1. Similarity in Visible Growth:
Both society and organism are distinguished from inorganic matter by means of their visible
growth. Thus both society and the organism are subject to growth.
Example: A child grows up to be a man; a tiny community becomes a metropolitan area; a
small state becomes an empire, and so on
 Pusparaj Koirala
Lecturer , Pokhara Universtiy
School of Business
9856047155, [email protected]

2. An Increase in the Complexity of Structure:

• As both society and organisms grow in size they also increase in complexity of structure.
• Primitive organisms [like amaeba] are simple whereas the highest organisms [like the
mammals] are very complex.
• Primitive community was very simple whereas the modern industrial society is highly
complex.

3. Differentiation of Structure Leading to Differentiation of Functions

• In societies and in organisms progressive differentiation of structure is accompanied by
progressive differentiation of functions.
• The primitive living organism was a unicellular creature; but with the increase in the cells,
differentiation of organs resulted, at the highest levels of evolution the structure of the body
is quite complex.
• Similar is the case with society. In the case of an organism that has very complex organs,
each organ performs a specified function.
Similarly, in the case of complex society subdivided into many different organisations, each
organisation carries on a specified function.

4. Differentiation as well as Harmony of Organs

• Evolution establishes for both societies and organisms, differences in structure and function
that make each other possible.
• Evolution leads to development of greater differentiation of the organs of society as also
that of an individual.
• Along with this differentiation there is also the harmony between various organs.
• Each organ is complementary to the other and not opposed. This holds true both in the
body of a living organism and society