Unit 9

Curriculum and Course Design

Linguistic competence
 Index
Scheme 3

Key Ideas 4
9.1. Objectives 4
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9.2. Introduction 5
9.3. Theory 11
9.4. Linguistic competence in education 19
9.5. References 23

In Depth 24

Test 25
 Scheme
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Unit 9. Scheme
 Key Ideas

9.1. Objectives

In order to understand not only the course but the unit it is important that the
students read through the mandatory content, listed in the key ideas. Students may
want to also look at the recommended material to further reflect upon the key ideas
outline within the unit, although it is not mandatory to complete the unit test, at the
end.

To study this unit, please read careful through the following sections, firstly it will
discuss the influence of knowledge and language in the classroom, then the theory
of how to plan for language competences and lastly, an example provided from the
European Union of a plan for linguistic functions in a subject area. Throughout this
unit students will:

 Students will differentiate linguistics and language.

 Students will understand how language and knowledge are dependent on each
other.
 Students will compare the differences between specific and general academic
language use.
 Students will analyze different types of learning systems which provide language.
 Students will know how to plan for language in the classroom.
 Students will evaluate how scaffolding can aid language planning.
 Students will evaluate how linguistic competences are planned for in a subject.
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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 9.2. Introduction

Linguistics is the field in which language is learned about and studied. That is
to say, researchers who study language are within the field of Linguistics.
Language is the system of creating and learning words, and sentences.

Language is not used just to communicate with others, but it also is the vehicle in
which information and knowledge is transmitted and received. The connection
between the two is significant in education, as teachers are intending for their
students to learn information through language. Through language students and
teachers are able to express knowledge through different paths such as (Beacco,
Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):

 Representation: expounding and disseminating knowledge established

independently of language.

 Mediation: verbalization, making it possible to go from one semiotic system to

another.

 Interaction: allowing exchanges (discussion, debate, disputes) between the

producers of knowledge and between the producers and users of knowledge,
which may lead to advances in knowledge.

 Creativity: because language can be a means of creating knowledge, the creation

and writing of knowledge thus being the two sides of one and the same process.
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The various functions in which language can enable knowledge must be considered
to the fullest extent to make the most out of student learning. Language is essential
to knowledge, which means it should be considered in aspects of teaching and
learning, by the teacher and for the students. How knowledge is transmitted inside
and outside of the classroom should be considered when planning. Due to the vast

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 variety of genres students may gain knowledge through teachers must also consider
knowledge genres such as (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):

 Genres internal to communities, where new knowledge is expounded and

discussed.

 Genres for transmitting knowledge outside scientific communities through

education (textbooks, course books, summaries, etc.), with the necessary forms
of didactic transposition.

 Genres used for dissemination or popularization: Magazines aimed at the general

public, encyclopedias etc.

Academic language

Although in language there are various functions within the educational word,
language functions are quite defined. It is also important to keep in mind the
purposes of linguistics in academics are to focus the language on specific language
use. This language use is called «academic language use,» which is the language used
to succeed in subject learning as well as to have success after graduating from school
(Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015). Features of academic
language include, formal language, long and complex sentences, use of abstract
terms, impersonal statements, use of figurative expressions. Some of the functions
included in academic language include: communicate complex facts, context and
arguments, support higher-order thinking, establish coherence of ideas. The
following table demonstrates the differences between using subject-specific
language versus general academic language. Below is an image illustrating the
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different uses of academic language with a learning system (Time magazine) (Beacco,
Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

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 EXAMPLES OF SUBJECT-SPECIFIC vs. GENERAL ACADEMIC LANGUAGE USE
IN DIFFERENT CONTENT AREAS
GENERAL ACADEMIC WORDS
SUBJECT-SPECIFIC LANGUAGE
& PHRASES
▸ Imagery, alliteration,
theme, metaphor,
▸ That is, implied, contains,
plot…
Language as a subject leads us to believe,
▸ Stylistic devices.
teaches a message…
▸ This expression is
ambiguous.
▸ Revolution,
emancipation, right,
oligarchy… ▸ Therefore, as a result,
History ▸ To stand up for one’s consequently, consist of,
own rights, usurp on the assumption that…
power…
▸ Rights and obligations.
▸ Reciprocal, balance,
proof, hypotenuse,
▸ Hypothesis, variable, infer,
Math obtuse, matrix…
results, dependent on…
▸ The curve is (sharply)
rising/falling…
▸ Mitosis, gravity,
▸ To increase, to decrease,
force…
Science to stay even or to even
▸ Sublimation.
out…
▸ Global warming.

Figure 1. Examples of Subject-Specific vs. General Academic Language Use. (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer,
2015).
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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 Figure 2. Example of Illustrating Aspects of Academic Language in Context. Image from (Beacco, Coste, Van, &
Vollmer, 2015).

It is important that teachers are aware of the language competences involved in

subject learning. The following are the six dimensions teacher needs to plan and
consider when teaching (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

 Comprehending/understanding in-depth (the meaning of an utterance, a text, a

problem).
• Processing and acquiring subject knowledge (through listening and reading
activities) and in-depth understanding of texts that deal with subject-matter
issues.

 Communicating and negotiating knowledge.

• Negotiating the meaning of new knowledge items in relation to already existing
ones.
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 Reflecting on the acquisition process, the learning outcomes and their personal
as well as social uses.
• Reflecting on how a new insight developed and was acquired.

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  Applying knowledge to and within another context.
• Considering the validity and use of knowledge, applying it to other/new
contexts.

 Participating in the socio-scientific world.

• Preparing for and participating in socio-scientific debates and the relevant
discourse outside school.

 Transferring generalizable knowledge, skills and attitudes.

• Questioning critically the meaning and scope of rules or conventions,
generalizing the acquired procedural knowledge and skills (as part of one’s
general education)

Learning systems

Teachers need to be aware of the language demands they are placing on their
students. This consideration should include not only the language students will need
to learn the content but also to interact with one another as well as with the learning
systems included within the school. Failure to support students in attaining the
language needed hinders the students in what they may learn through the learning
experience and process. Within the curriculum context it is important consider the
different linguistic functions of the learning systems included (Beacco, Coste, Van, &
Vollmer, 2015):

 Education content and programs in school subjects: making explicit the specific
linguistic norms and competences which learners must master.
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 Learning modalities: exposing learners to diversified learning situations in order to

develop their cognitive and linguist capacities.

 School textbooks: encouraging authors to ensure that such materials explicitly

take account of the linguistic dimensions of the different subjects.

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  Processes of diagnosis and assessment: verifying at regular intervals and, in
particular, between different stages of education, the ability of learners to master
those aspects of the language of schooling required at different stages of
education. Anticipating for each subject, the kinds of competences in the language
of schooling that will be required in assessments with a view to prepare the
students for them.

 Provisions of appropriate forms of support: through scaffolding, extra text,

miming, modeling or any other way to help the student.

 Increased awareness of the role that can be played by all the diversified linguistic
resources available to learnings: Facilitating their access to knowledge.

As a result of all the learning systems included in a curriculum it is important to note

that there needs to be coherence from the European Union policies to the classroom.
There should be linguistic considerations made by all parties involved in the creation
of education materials, and/or learning experiences. That is to say, not only should
the government be held accountable for linguistic provisions in the classroom but
teachers and even authors of materials as well. The following provides a list of the
considerations to be made for the linguistic functions within the classroom, who it
implicates and how it affects student’s learning (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier,
Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):

 Teaching materials: authors and publishers should be made aware of the need to
bring out the language dimension as subject-matter for learning.

 Teacher training: initial training should include provision for awareness-raising

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concerning language, in a specific way for each discipline or in the form of

interdisciplinary training schemes bringing out the collective responsibility of the
teaching team for ensuring everyone’s educational success.

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  The production: by educational bodies enjoying national or regional recognition,
and the circulation among teachers, of documents establishing a link between
teaching practices and the support required for mastery of the language
dimension. The idea is not to place an additional burden on teachers but, on the
contrary, to facilitate their teaching work.

 Subject-based assessments: particular attention should be focused on the

importance of drawing the implications from the links between subject-specific
knowledge and mastery of the language dimension. The designers of both
formative and summative assessments should consider and take due account of
the linguistic knowledge and skills necessitated by the tasks set. Teachers should
be able to prepare learners for this aspect of tests.

9.3. Theory

For the purposes of linguistics and knowledge in the classroom it is important that
the teacher establish the lines of language which will be used. This includes
determining all types of linguistic aspects which may occur in class, from the
interactions between students (student talk) and, also, the types of language use
which occur with the content.

First of all, it is important to specify within the subject the overall considerations for
language within the classroom. This provides the teacher will an overall picture of
what will occur within the classroom during the lesson/unit/module (Beacco, Coste,
Van, & Vollmer, 2015):
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 Specify the subject, language of transmission and content.

• What will the students be learning about overall? What subject will this be
taught in? What language?

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
  Assign precise scientific goals to oral interaction in the classroom.
• How will the students need to use language? To interact with their classmates?
To learn new knowledge?

 Catalogue the other discourse genres present in teaching.

• Specify their uses (comprehension, production, rewriting etc.)
• Will different language be needed for writing? Understanding/listening? Or
rewriting?

 Describe as clearly as possible the form of the oral and written texts expected from
learners.
• What language will the learners need to identify/produce/rewrite/listen/read
as written/oral/both.

 Differentiate texts used for the appropriation of knowledge from those used for
the assessment of the results of learning: they are not necessarily identical or
drawn up in the same way.
• Texts for assessment should be accessible language for the leaners, with a
structure they can guide themselves through.
• Texts for the appropriation of knowledge should be accessible language for
leaners with guidance from the teacher, peers or themselves depending on the
learning experience.

 Consider above all the relevance of these texts to the learning goals in the
particular subject: What is the relevance to learning of writing and memorizing
summaries of chapters in the textbook?
• Consider what is the end goal of the learning experience?
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Student talk

Secondly, once having outlined the lesson and the various uses of language, teachers
should consider how students interactions amongst themselves. This will provide a

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 picture of how student talk can affect the learning environment. Planning for the
types of language/discourse that will occur in the classroom will allow the teacher to
guide the students in acquiring and utilizing the proper linguistic functions. The
various types of student talk include (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015):

 Socio-cultural talk. This discourse is distinguished from other ones because of the
topic under discussion. Student’s talk together about almost everything that has
nothing to do with educational tasks: family, friends, weekends, etc.
• The objective of such talk is to establish or maintain social relationships.
Sometimes such relationships are a basis for more education-related talk.
There might be some learning that can be characterized as incidental, but it is
not learning that is directly related to educational objectives.

 Procedural talk. Students talk about how to carry out the assignment set for their
work. Sometimes there is some learning that might lead to procedural knowledge:
How to do things, especially when they argue for possible actions, proposing
solutions. They learn about setting up experiments, carrying out inquiries.

 Instrumental talk. Student’s talk is mainly directed towards fulfilling their task as
efficiently as possible (usually as quickly as possible). The question in the
assignment e.g. needs an answer. So e.g. students note an answer, even if they
doubt if it is the correct answer, because the teacher expects and the task requires
an answer.

 Disputation talk. Students disagree, draw their own conclusions, and make their
own individual decisions. There is little or no co-operation. Tensions or even
conflicts between students appear to be counter-productive for their learning.
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 Cumulative talk. Students build positively but uncritically on what the other one
has said, there is no construction, only accumulation of information.

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  Pedagogical talk. Students take over the role of the teacher, explaining the topic,
the content and the task to each other. The «student teacher» as well as the
students may learn from this talk. The student teacher because he/she has to
explain, to demonstrate, in short he/she is productively dealing with the content
of the lessons: verbalization can lead to elaboration of cognitive processes, to
reflection, awareness, expansion of knowledge. The other students may learn
because of the individually directed explanation.

 Exploratory talk. Students discuss and argue about some school subject related
topic, using or exploring subject specific concepts. They explain these to each
other, supply information, identifying problems and applications. They discuss and
evaluate information and interpretations, generate ideas, suggest hypotheses,
develop criteria. They listen and try to understand by asking and answering
questions. Possible tensions or even conflicts between learners appear to be
productive for their learning.

Now, when planning for content and lines of language within the classroom. Teachers
must consider that the «academic language» should be broken down and categorized
into different functions to reveal types of language the students may be asked to do.
For example, there is a difference between having students work with oral versus
written production. This first differentiation will indicate the type of language the
teacher needs to prepare for.

Next, teachers need to identify the «genre» the students will be working with. This is
listed in the introduction as how knowledge and language can function together,
through expounding and discussing knowledge (internal communities), transmitting
knowledge (outside scientific communities through education, e.g., textbooks),
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disseminating or popularizing knowledge (information for the general public).

Once the genre of knowledge that the students will be working with has been
established, it is important to consider the material as a whole. «Language may be
considered at word level (e.g. spelling and vocabulary) or sentence level (e.g.

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 grammar and punctuation) but it is when it is considered as a text that notions like
context, meaning, purpose and deep understanding come more into play» (Beacco,
Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015). When teachers are intending on teaching not just
language but content as well it is fundamental to plan for the type of discourse (the
purpose of the text) to establish the relationship between the content and the
language.

Consider the following of how to establish the lines of language within the classroom
content and subject. It is important to decide the type of language
(Theoretical/general versus practical/specific) that is needed within the learning
context. Also to consider the type of activity (classify, apply principles, evaluate,
describe, sequence or choose) the students will be engaging in, to set out the
language they will need to learn with the content (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer,
2015).

LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

Theoretical/General Language

CLASSIFICATION PRINCIPLES EVALUATION

EXAMPLE THINKING SKILLS

Classifying.
Evaluating.
Identifying. Establishing hypotheses.
Ranking.
Understanding. Interpreting data.
Judging.
Applying or developing Drawing conclusions.
Appreciating.
concepts.

EXAMPLE LANGUAGE NEEDED

Verb categories.
Cause/reason: Is due to… Describing emotions: Like,
Verbs of possession:
Condition & contrast: If dislike, satisfaction…
Have
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there is… Evaluation adjectives: Good,

Comparatives: More
Prediction: Probably… right/wrong…
than – taller than…
Generalizations & Verbs of volition: Prefer, had
Classification: Include,
explanations: Completely… rather…
place, under…

Practical/Specific Language

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 DESCRIPTION SEQUENCE CHOICE

EXAMPLE THINKING SKILLS

Observing. Selecting.
Arranging events in order.
Identifying. Generating solutions.
Following directions.
Comparing. Solving problems.
Predicting order.
Contrasting. Identifying issues.

EXAMPLE LANGUAGE NEEDED

Stative verbs: Believe, Logical & chronological
feel… connectors: during, next, Modals: Can, will, must, should…
Relative clauses: Who, finally… Request/offer: I can, I could,
what, how… Preposition of space and Could you…
Preposition of place: time: At, around, about, Preference: Prefer, had rather…
Between, under… towards…

Figure 3. Language Functions. (Beacco, Coste, Van, & Vollmer, 2015).

Scaffolding

Due to the fact that students are learning content or even an L2 as a subject, it is
important that students are supported in their learning. In order for students to
progress towards a more proficient language students must be provided a variety of
instructional and support techniques (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, &
Vollmer, 2015). These strategies are implemented and then slowly taken away from
the student as they progress in their learning. The idea behind scaffolding comes from
Lev Vygotsky, whose tenets of learning can be summarized as (Beacco, Fleming,
Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):

 Learning precedes development.

 Language is the main vehicle (tool) of thought.
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 Mediation is central to learning.

 Social interaction is the basis of learning and development. Learning is a process
of apprenticeship and internalization in which skills and knowledge are
transformed from the social into the cognitive plane.

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
  The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the primary activity space in which
learning occurs.

The following techniques are included as ways of scaffolding language in the

classroom (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015):

 Explaining a new concept through a concept map.

 Making deliberate comparisons with a first / another language and culture.

 Focusing on particular words to develop a meta-language.

 Providing and explicating fruitful examples asking students to notice particular

aspects/features of language use.

 Highlighting language patterns for specific cognitive-linguistic functions (e.g.

define, describe, explain, evaluate, argue…).

 Providing textual models (genres) for oral or written content-based

communication.

 Using questions to probe students’ conceptions and prompt them to describe their
interpretations and challenge their opinions using various ways of representing
ideas and concepts (e.g. visuals, diagrams, organizers, highlighting, various media
and technologies).

 Giving feedback that relates to improving subject literacy.

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The following charts demonstrate how scaffolding language features could be

implemented for an information report from upper primary to secondary. First
included is the cycle of how the lesson is carried out with scaffolding and following is

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 the chart to understand the type of information that is scaffolded for learners to
produce the text necessary (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

Figure 4. Example Scaffolding in the cycle. (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).
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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 Figure 5. Example Scaffolding in Information Report. Image from (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, &
Vollmer, 2015).

9.4. Linguistic competence in education

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Each subject must explicitly outline the linguistic components of the subject and
learning, so the students know what level is required to master.

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 «The Council of Europe has provided [a] case study in order to illustrate the
procedures necessary for the identification and description of the linguistic
dimensions in one particular subject. [They are] characterized by the same
five-step procedure, exemplified here for science (in the procedure below
'science' can be replaced by any subject)». (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier,
Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

Figure 6. Steps for identifying Language competences in teaching/learning a specific subject. (Beacco, Fleming,
Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).
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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 Figure 7. Examples of Language Competences in History and Science studies. (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier,
Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

Infant education

For those teachers in infant education language learning is central to students’

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education. At this stage students are developing their vocabulary, ability to

understand, beginning to learn to write and learning how to interact with one
another. The following sets out general objectives for linguistic competences in infant
education (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 Figure 8. General language skills objectives for speaking in infant children. (Beacco, Fleming, Goullier,
Thürmann, & Vollmer, 2015).

9.5. References

Beacco, J.-C., Coste, D., Van, P.-H. v., & Vollmer, H. J. (2015). The place of the
languages of schooling in the curricula. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Beacco, J.-C., Fleming, M., Goullier, F., Thürmann, E., & Vollmer, H. (2015). THE
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LANGUAGE DIMENSION IN ALL SUBJECTS: A Handbook for Curriculum development

and teacher training. The language dimension in all subjects: equity and quality in
education (pp. 1-162). Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved from
https://www.ecml.at/coe-docs/language-dimensions-subjects-EN.pdf

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Unit 9. Keys Ideas
 In Depth
What is linguistic competence?

Koay, Jeremy. (2019). What is linguistic competence? Retrieved from Edumaxi:

https://www.edumaxi.com/what-is-linguistic-competence/

This is article provides a concise explanation of what linguistic competence is.

Skills Every Child Will Need to Succeed in 21st century

TEDx Talks. [TEDx Talks]. (2018 Mar 18). Skills Every Child Will Need to Succeed in 21st
century | Dr. Laura A. Jana | TEDxChandigarh [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3jYVe1RGaU

Dr. Laura A. Jana talks about QI skills children need to be successful in the 21 st
century.
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Unit 9. In Depth
 Test
1. Linguistics is different than language because…
A. it refers the researchers who study communication.
B. system of creating and learning words and sentences.
C. system of creating words.
D. it refers about the field of study

2. Knowledge and language are related through different paths such as

representation, mediation, interaction and creativity.
A. True.
B. False.

3. Genres of knowledge which can be used within the classroom include… (select all
that apply)
A. private research.
B. encyclopedia.
C. magazines.
D. textbooks.

4. Academic language are general academic words or phrases used within the
classroom.
A. True.
B. False.
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Unit 9. Test
 5. According to Beacco, Fleming, Goullier, Thürmann, & Vollmer (2015) dimensions
teachers need to plan for linguistic competence in the classroom include (select
all that apply):
A. Applying knowledge.
B. Communicating and negotiating knowledge.
C. School textbooks.
D. Scaffolding.

6. When planning for linguistic functions the following aspects must be considered
in their role, implication and effect on student learning (select all that apply):
A. Assessment.
B. Materials.
C. The law.
D. Teacher relationships.

7. Texts used for appropriation of knowledge are different from texts for assessment.
A. True.
B. False.

8. Student talk that builds positively and uncritically on what another student has
said (adding on information) is…
A. disputation talk.
B. instrumental talk.
C. cumulative talk.
D. pedagogical talk.

9. Scaffolding can be done through various techniques it is a strategy which facilitates

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information/language so the students can achieve the goal of the

task/assignment.
A. True.
B. False.

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Unit 9. Test
 10. Infant education is focused on students listening, speaking and reading the second
language.
A. True.
B. False.
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Unit 9. Test