CHAPTER 4

EARTH WORK

1. Introduction

Earth work operations involve the determination of the volume of materials that must be
excavated or embanked on an engineering project to bring the ground surface to a
predetermined grade, and the setting of stakes to aid in carrying out the construction work
according to the plans.
The principles involved in determining volumes of stock piles of crushed stone, gravel,
and to volumes of reservoirs.
The field work includes the measurement of the dimensions of the various geometrical
solids that make up the volumes, the setting of grade stakes, and the keeping of the field
notes. The office work involves the computations of the measured areas / volumes and
the determination of the most economical manner of performing the work.
Estimation of areas and volumes is basic to most engineering schemes such as route
alignment, reservoirs, tunnels, etc.The excavation or embanking and hauling of material
on such schemes is the most significant and costing aspects of the work.
Areas may be required in connection with the purchase or sale of land, with the
subdivision of land or with the grading of land.
Earthwork volumes must be estimated to enable route alignment to be located at such
lines and levels that cut and fill are balanced as far as practicable; and to enable contract
estimates of time and cost to be made for proposed work; and to form the basis of
payment for the work carried out.

2. Calculation of area

The computation of area may be based on data scaled from plans or drawings or directly
from the survey field data.
1. Area measurement by plan meter
The most common method of measuring areas from plans is to use an instrument
called a plan meter.
Actual area=revolution*A*
2. Area by triangles a
A=
b
s= or A=1/2 b c sin a
b

3.Area by squares

When the area is irregular, a sheet of gridded tracing material may be superimposed
over it and the number of squares counted. Knowing the scale of the plans and the
size of the squares, an estimate of the area can be obtained. Portions of squares cut by
the irregular boundaries can be estimated.

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4. Area by GIVE and TAKE method /offsets/
In this method irregular boundaries may be reduced to straight lines using GIVE and
TAKE lines, in which the areas ‘taken’ from the total area balance out with the extra
areas given.

5. Area by coordinates
I f the shape of the area is defined in terms of plane rectangular co-ordinate, its area
can be computed precisely by the use of coordinates as
2*area= ( )+ ( )+ ( - )+…+ ( )+ ( )
B C

D
A

E
This is interpreted as the area equals half the sum of the
product of the coordinates joined by the arrow to the right
minus half the sum of the product of the coordinates joined
by the dotted lines.

N.B. The first station coordinates are repeated at the end of

the list

6. Ordinate methods
This method is widely applied for irregular areas, when offsets are taken from regular
to irregular boundary with uniform or non-uniform interval
There are three important rules under ordinate method.

 The trapezoidal rule

It assumes that the boundaries between the extremities of the ordinates are straight
lines.
Area of trapezium = .( )

h2 h3
Area of trapezium = ( ) h1
A1 A2
Area of trapezium = ( ) d1 d2 d3
If d1=d2=d3=dn-1=d
Then Total area =d[h1+2(h2+h3+….hn-1)+hn]/2

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  Simpson’s rule

It assumes that the boundaries are curved lines and are considered as portions of
parabolic arcs of the form y=ax2+bx+c. This rule is applied directly for odd number
of offsets.

Area of abcb1=2/3 area of parallelogram

=2/3*2*d*h2-(h1+h3)/2
Total area=2d (h1+h2)/2+4/3(d*(h2-(h1+h3)/2))

If the figure is divided into an even number of parts giving an odd number of
ordinates, the total area is given as:

A=d [(h1+4h2+h3) + (h3+4h4+h5) +…+ (hn-2+4hn-1+hn)]/3

=d [h1+4 (even numbered ordinates)+2 (odd numbered ordinates)+hn]/3

 Coordinate rule

When the ordinates are taken at irregular intervals, the area of each figure between pairs
of adjacent offsets may be computed and the values are added. The coordinate rule for
irregular spacing of ordinates can be applied by the relation; twice the area can be
calculated if each offset is multiplied by the distance to the preceding offset plus the
distance to the following offset.

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5

d1 d2 d3 d4

2 Area=h1d1+h2 (d1+d2) +h3 (d2+d3) +h4 (d3+d4) +h5d4

The general formula
2 Area=h1d1+h2 (d1+d2) +…+hn-1(dn-2+dn-1) +hndn-1
EQUALISATION OF A BOUNDARY TO GIVE STRAIGHT LINES

Equalization of a boundary is used in the determination of area by give and take method
for irregular
Y boundaries. So, the irregular boundary is to be equalized by a line from a
point on the first point to the ending point.
B E

A 3

C D
 1.Join point A to C, draw a line Bb
parallel to AC cutting yy at b.
Abc=ABC

Y
b
B E 2. Join point b to D draw a line Cc
parallel to bD cutting yy at c
cDb=cCD
A
C D
Y
b
B E 3. Join point c to D , draw a line
Dd parallel to cE cutting yy at
c d
A DdE=cdE
C D

Y
b
B E
4. Join point d to E
c line dE equalizes the boundary
N
A . so that
D
d C area dABN=area CDEN

4. CALCULATION OF VOLUME

One of the major considerations in civil engineering projects is the volume of earth work
to be excavated, moved (hailed) around and perhaps used as fill at some other part of the
site.
There are three general methods which may be considered in volume calculation. These
are:-
 cross-sectional areas

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  contours
 spot heights
 End-area method
For given areas at different sections the volume can be calculated by means of the two
end areas multiplied by the length between them.
 Prismoidal formula
Similarly the volume of earth work can be calculated by using prismoidal formula. But
the number of sections where the areas are determined should be odd and having the
same interval.
For the above figure,
Volume (V) =∆/3[Afirst+Alast+2Aodd+4Aeven]

3.1 Volume from cross-section

Volumetric calculations involve cross-sections taken at right angles to a convenient base

line, e.g.
The centerline of the construction as highway, or waterway, which generally runs
longitudinally through the earthworks.
Three types of configurations are considered
1. Two level-the cross fall is level;
It will be applied for both fill and cut similarly
Where w-formation width
Ho-formation height measured on the center line
W-side width for fixing of formation side width pegs measured from the
centerline
Side slope or batter
Cross fall gradient
From the figure,
W=w/2+mho
A=ho (w+2W)/2
=ho (w+w+2mho)/2
=ho (w+mho)
2. Three level section
In this case there are levels at the formation level, and at the side width pegs A and B,
giving the respective heightsh1, h0, and h2.
The are (A) then consists of two triangles and a trapezium.

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 If the sides of the excavation or fill are not vertical such that the area can not be
divided exactly in to squires (or rectangles), the volumes outside the grid must be
estimated individually and added.

1 In order divide and determine the area of plot of tand, the coordinates at the
control stations are taken as (x, y) coordinate as below.
A (0,0) B, (-32,40), c (-47,126) , D(14,200), E (80,144) F(108,62), G(27,-19)
calculate the area enclosed and the coordinates of the for end of a straight from A
that just cuts the area in to two.

2 An embankment for a new road is to be 20m wide at the top, with side of 1v:3h.
The heights of the fill at the center line of three successive x-sections 30m apart
are 2.4m, 2.8m and 3.2m respectively and the existing ground has a uniform cross
fall of 1 in 12. calculate the volume of fill reqd.

3 A road having a formation width of 15m is to be constructed in ground having a

cross fall of 1 in 10. the depth of fill at the centrelines of cross-section x & y are

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 0.25 m and 0.38 m respectively. Given that the side slopes 1:1 in out and 1:2
infill, determine the volume of out and fill between x and y which are 20m apart
allowing the prismoidal

4. In a cutting, the width of the formation is 8m and the side slopes are 1 in 2. the
depths at the center line, which lies on the ciranal line of radius 150m, at cross
sections 20m apart are 2.50m, 3.10m, and 4.3m respectively. The cutting is to be
widened by increasing the formation width to 11m, the excavation being on the
outside of the curve and reating the original side slopes.
5. Calculate the volume of excavation b/n the cross-sections using the end area
method.

Assume the traverse slope of the ground is 1 in 5 at each cross-section.

6. The site of a proposed new reservoir is illustrated below. The area enclosed by
each of the various contour lines and vertical dam is as follows
Contour (m) Area enclosed (m2)

860 31000
865 87000
870 106000
875 147000
880 205000
885 240000

7. The sketch below shows the existing ground levels in a 15m square grid forming
part of a site which is to be excavated to a uniform formation level of 10.0m
above datum.
Calculate the volume of earth to be excavated assuming vertical sides

So, A =
Substituting values of h1, h2, d1 and d2

A=

** Sections with part cut and part fill.

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 There is difference in better lead /side slop/
1 in n for fill
1 in m for cut
the total area conaitsts of two parts

For the center line in the fill,

but if h0=0 and m=n,

8. Multilevel cross fall

It must be assumed that a cross-sectional leveling has been carried out and thus at each
change ingredient the level is known together with linear offsets from the center line.
The Cartesian coordinates are thus known and a cross-section can be drawn from which
the area can be computed by using the coordinate which are derived from point’s level
and offsets useful in setting out the figure.
After the areas at different sections are determined, the volume can be derived by using
End area method (trapezoidal rule) or Primoisdal formula (Simpson’s rule)

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  End area method
A1, A2, A3, A4…are areas at different section spaced with interval ∆ 1, ∆2,
∆3 respectively. So,
V1= ( ) ∆1

V2= ( ) ∆2
If spacing is taken at equal intervals,
V= =∆/2[A1+2A2+A3]

=∆/2[Afirst+Alast+2Aintermediate]

 Prismoidal formula(Simpson’s rule)

V=∆/3(A1+4A2+2A3+4A4+A5)
=∆/3(Afirst+Alast+2Aodd+4Aeven)
Prismoidal correction
Since prismoidal formula is the most accurate formula in volume calculation, correction
is needed to be applied to regular sections calculated by end area method to have
equivalent result to that of prismoidal method.
Prismoidal correction varies depending on the nature of the cross-section.
Prismoidal correction (pc) =Vea-Vp
Vea=volume by end area method
VP=volume by prismoidal formula
PC for different sections
1. Sections in level across
Pc=d/6*m [ ]
2. Sections with cross fall
Pc= (k2/k2m2) m [ ]
3. Sections part in cut, part in fill
Pc= (k2/k-m) [ ) 2]

EFFECT OF CURVATURE
When the center line is curved, the sections for volume calculation may no longer be
parallel to each other because they will be set out radial to the curve. So, it is necessary to
apply curvature corrections using Pappui’s theorem.
It states that the volume swept out by an area revolving about an axis is given by the
product of the area and the length of the path traced by the centroid of the area.
Thus a sphere is swept out by a semicircle rotating about a diameter and its volume is
given by the area (A=1/2∏r2) times the length of the centroid in tracing one complete
revolution.
Since the centroid of a semicircle is

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 From the axis

Volume=

=
The mean distance of centroids from the center line is written as E= (E 1+E2)/2 so the
mean radius of the path of the centroid will be (R+E).
SO V=1/2(A1+A2) D (1+E/R)
3.2 Volume from contour lines
Volume can be calculated using the horizontal area obtained by contour lines. The
contour interval will determine the distance D in the area or prismoidal formula, and for
accuracy.
This should be as small as possible. The areas enclosed by individual contour lines are
best taken off the plan by means of planmeter.And in computing the volume; the areas
enclosed by two successive contour lines are used in the end areas formula.
Volume=D
Where D-contour interval
Ax-area at x contour line
Ay-area at y contour line
It required the prismoidal formula can be used either by treating alternate areas or by
interpolating intermediate contours between those established by direct leveling.
This method can be used in determining volumes of reservoirs etc.

8.3 Volumes from spot levels

This method of volume determination is especially useful in the determination of

volumes of large open excavations for tanks, basements, borrowpits etc.and for ground-
leveling operations such as playing fields and building sites.
Based on the work to be done the area is divided into squares or rectangles and marking
the corner points and then taking levels at each of these corner points.
The size of the square depends on the nature of the ground and the corners should be
sufficiently close for the ground surfaces between to be considered as planes. By
subtracting from the observed levels the corresponding formation levels a series of
heights can be found from which the volume within each square can be taken as the plan
area multiplied by the average of the depth of excavation (or fill) at the four corners.
So, volume of cut under the first square= (ha+hb+hc+hd)
Because over the complete grid the heights at the interval intersection are used in
calculation of more than one square, the following type of formula can be developed.
VOL=
d-length of side of square
h1-height used only once (ha,hb);
h2-height used twice (he,hf);

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h3-height used three times (hd)
h4-height used four HJGJGJTtimes(hg)

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