Chemical Proper�es:

1. Define Mater and describe the three states of Mater. Mater is anything that has a mass and occupies a volume.
The three states of Mater are: Solid: Rigid and occupies fixed volume and shape at a par�cular pressure and temperature Liquid: Fluid and occupies fixed volume at a par�cular
pressure and temperature, but has no fixed shape and takes shape of the container Gas: Fluid, moves randomly and can occupy a large volume, expands a lot when heated and
can be compressed when under pressure
2. Define Atomic number and Atomic mass. Atomic number: Is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Atomic mass: Is the number of protons plus neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
3. What are Isotopes? Explain with example. All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. However, they may have different numbers of neutrons. Atoms of
the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Example: Carbon-12, Carbon-13, and Carbon-14.
4. Calculate the average atomic mass of naturally occurring magnesium if the distribu�on of isotopes is 78.7% 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀12 24 , 10.1% 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀12 25 and 11.2% 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀12 26 , and the
accurate masses of the isotopes are 24.0 u, 25.0 u and 26.0 u. The average atomic mass of magnesium is the weighted mean of the atomic masses of the three isotopes: Average
atomic mass = (78.7 x 24.0 + 10.1 x 25 + 11.2 x 26)/100=24.3 u
5. Describe the characteris�cs of covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and metallic bonds. Give one example for each bonding type. Covalent bond: Between materials whose atoms have
small differences in electronega�vity; near one another in the periodic table. Stable electron configura�ons are assumed by the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms.
Example: H2. Ionic bond: Always found in compounds composed of both metallic and non- metallic elements, elements situated at the horizontal extremi�es of the periodic table.
When a metal reacts with a non-metal, electron transfer takes place. One atom takes electrons, the other atom releases electrons. Example: NaCl Metallic bond: Found in metals
and alloys. Valence electrons dri� throughout the en�re metal “electron cloud”. Non-valence electrons & atomic nuclei form ion core with posi�ve net charge. Electrosta�c forces
occur between delocalised electron cloud and ion core. Example: Metallic bond in Iron
6. Upon freezing most substances experience a decrease in volume (or, correspondingly, an increase in density). One excep�on is water, which exhibits the familiar expansion
upon freezing - approximately 9 volume percent expansion. Discuss a possible reason. For solid ice, each water molecule par�cipates in four hydrogen bonds. This is a rela�vely
open structure - that is, the molecules are not closely packed together - and as a result, the density is low. Upon mel�ng, this structure is par�ally destroyed, such that the water
molecules become more closely packed together; this leads to an increase in density.
7. Different atoms form different Ionic and Covalent bonds. What is the determining factor? Support your answer with examples. Different atoms form different ionic and covalent
bonds. One determining factor is the difference in electronega�vity between the par�cipa�ng elements.
8. Referring to the Electronega�vity of Elements, determine the type of chemical bonding and explain how the bonding type is determined for:
The chemical bonds can be predicted on the base of the difference in electronega�vity between the par�cipa�ng elements:
H2 = 2.20 – 2.20 = 0; Mostly covalent - non-polar | LiBr = 2.96 – 0.98 = 1.98; Mostly ionic |CO = 3.44 – 2.55 = 0.89; Mostly covalent – Polar |
NaCl = 3.16 – 0.93 = 2.23; Mostly ionic | CO2 = As before, the CO bond is mostly covalent – Polar bond. However, due to the CO2 symmetrical
configura�on (shown in the following figure), CO2 bond is non-polar covalent bond.
9.
a. Yield strength Yield strength is indica�ve of the stress at which plas�c deforma�on begins. For most materials, yield strength is determined
from a stress–strain plot using the 0.001 or 0.002 strain offset technique.
b. Ul�mate tensile strength a measure of the maximum stress a material withstands while being stretched or pulled before breaking
c. Young’s Modulus It is the stress required per unit strain in the linear elas�c region. It measures the material resistance to elas�c deforma�on
d. Duc�le material A material that experiences a large/considerable amount of plas�c deforma�on upon fracture
e. Britle material A material that experiences a very litle or no plas�c deforma�on upon fracture
10.Measured material proper�es vary between different test specimens. Suggest five factors that may lead to varia�ons in measured material
proper�es.
Many factors may lead to scater in measured material proper�es such as: (1) test method; (2) varia�on in specimen fabrica�on procedure; (3)
composi�onal differences; (4) apparatus calibra�on; and (5) material inhomogenei�es. Other factors include environment condi�ons, such as temperature and humidity.
11.Significant property differences between materials are atributed to their crystalline structures. Solid materials may be classified as crystalline or non-crystalline.
I. Explain the difference between crystalline and non-crystalline materials. In a crystalline material - atoms are situated in a long-range order, such that upon solidifica�on, atoms
posi�on themselves in a repe��ve three-dimensional patern (some�mes the term la�ce is used in the context of crystal structures). In a non-crystalline material (amorphous) –
no patern exists.
II. Name two different crystalline structures. Body-Centred Cubic (BCC) and Face-Centred Cubic (FCC).
IV. How many atoms per unit cell are in each of these two unit cells? For BCC: Number of atoms = 1 + 8/8 = 2 atoms For FCC: Number of atoms = 6/2 + 8/8 = 4 atoms
V. Define the coordina�on number. Number of nearest neighbour or touching atoms to an atom
VI. What is the coordina�on number of each of these two unit cells? For BCC: The coordina�on number = 8 For FCC: The coordina�on number = 12
VII. Define atomic packing factor (APF). What is the APF of each of these two unit cells? Ra�o of the volume of all atoms within a unit cell to the volume of the unit cell (assuming
the atomic hard-sphere model) For BCC: The atomic packing factor = 0.68. For FCC: The atomic packing factor = 0.74
Metals:
- One or more metallic elements and non-metallic elements (e.g. oxygen) / Metallic bonding / Atoms arranged in orderly manner (crystalline structure) / Strong, duc�le / High
thermal & electrical conduc�vity
Crystal Structures – Metals
1. Typically, one element is present, so all atomic radii are the same 2. Metallic bonding is not direc�onal; minimal restric�ons as to the number and posi�on of nearest-neighbour
atoms 3. Distance to neighbor atom is small; electron cloud shields atom cores from each other -All metals form crystalline structures, up on normal solidifica�on
-None of the metallic elements has Simple Cubic (SC) structure, because of its rela�vely low atomic packing factor, the only simple-cubic element is polonium (metalloid or semi-
metal) - Some metals, as well as non-metals, may have more than one crystal structure, a phenomenon known as polymorphism (when found in elemental solids, it is o�en
termed allotropy)
Metals VS Alloys:
-Metals = One or more metallic elements (e.g. iron, aluminium) and non-metallic elements (e.g. oxygen) (chemically bonded at the atomic level)
-Alloys = Mixtures or solu�ons of more than one metallic elements (no chemical bonds at the atomic level)
-Alloys have physical proper�es intermediate between those of the cons�tuent elements; but the chemical
proper�es of each cons�tuent remain unaffected
-Alloys could be separated by mel�ng
-Mixing is generally done at very high temperatures where the elements are melted, mixed, and le� to cool
Eutec�c Point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid can exist in this system
Polymers:
Non-metallic (Carbon, Hydrogen) /Covalent bonding/Thermal & electrical insulators/So�, duc�le, low
strength, low density, low mel�ng temperature
Polymers: What Are They?• Most polymers are organic in origin/ Many organic materials are hydrocarbons;
composed of hydrogen and carbon/ Intramolecular bonds are covalent / Weak hydrogen and van der Waals
bonds exist between molecules / Thus these hydrocarbons have rela�vely low mel�ng and boiling
temperatures / However, boiling temperatures rise with increasing molecular weight
Degree of Polymerisa�on: Degree of polymerisa�on is the average number of repeat units in a chain:
Molecular Structure
Linear The repeat units are joined together end to end in single chains / There are extensive van der Waals and hydrogen bonds between the chains/ E.g. high-density
polyethylene (HDPE)
Branched Synthesised in which side-branch chains are connected to the main chains / The chain
packing efficiency is reduced, i.e. lowering the polymer density / E.g. low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Cross-linked Linear chains joined at various posi�ons by covalent bonds/ Crosslinking is achieved
during synthesis or by an irreversible chemical reac�on, o�en by addi�ve atoms/molecules covalently
bonded to the chains/ E.g. cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and rubbers (called vulcanisa�on in
rubbers)
Network Highly crosslinked polymers / Monomers form three or more covalent bonds / Three dimensional networks / Have dis�nc�ve mechanical and thermal proper�es E.g.
high cross-linked polyethylene (HXLPE), epoxies, polyurethanes, phenol-formaldehyde
Which configura�on has the highest tensile strength? Why? Network – because of the high number of strong covalent bonds.
Which of the following configura�ons has a higher density: linear or branched? Why? Linear – because the only bonds between the chains are the secondary bonds and can
therefore achieve high packing (high mass in a small volume)
What is the glass transi�on temperature and for what polymers do we consider it? On cooling, glass transi�on temperature (Tg) is the temperature at which the material changes
from rubbery to rigid Glass transi�on occurs in amorphous and semi- crystalline polymers due to a reduc�on in the mo�on of large segments of the molecular chain with
decreasing temperature (because of the forma�on of secondary bonds)
Mechanical proper�es of polymers are highly sensi�ve to strain rate and temperature. What effects does a decrease in the temperature have on the elas�c modulus and the
duc�lity of polymers? Decreasing the temperature increases the elas�c modulus and decreases the duc�lity of polymers
What effects does an increase in the strain rate have on the elas�c modulus and the duc�lity of polymers? Increasing the strain rate increases the elas�c modulus and decreases
the duc�lity of polymers (the same effect as Decreasing the temperature)
Thermoplas�cs: Thermoplas�cs so�en/liquefy when heated and harden when cooled / Processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated/ As the temperature is raised,
secondary bonding forces are diminished (by increased molecular mo�on) so that the rela�ve movement of adjacent chains is facilitated when a stress is applied /Irreversible
degrada�on results when a molten thermoplas�c polymer is raised to too high a temperature / Most linear and branched polymers flexible chains are thermoplas�c / Normally
fabricated by the simultaneous applica�on of heat and pressure, thermoplas�cs are rela�vely so�/ Common thermoplas�c polymers include polyethylene, polystyrene,
poly(ethylene terephthalate), and poly(vinyl chloride)
Thermosets (Thermose�ng) Plas�cs: Thermosets become permanently hard during their forma�on/ Thermose�ng polymers are network polymers, with covalent
crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains / These bonds resist the vibra�onal and rota�onal chain mo�ons at high temperatures/ Thus, thermose�ng materials do not so�en
when heated / 10% to 50% of the chain repeat units are crosslinked / Only hea�ng to excessive temperatures will cause severance of these crosslink bonds and polymer
degrada�on / Generally harder and stronger than thermoplas�cs and have beter dimensional stability. / Most of the crosslinked and network polymers are thermosets. /
Common thermosets include vulcanized rubbers, epoxies, phenolics, and some polyester resins
Fracture of Polymers: Duc�le fracture: Material experience considerable plas�c deforma�on before fracture Britle fracture: Material experience litle/no plas�c deforma�on
before fracture/ For thermose�ng polymers (heavily networked): Fracture mode is Britle /For thermoplas�c polymers: Duc�le and britle fracture modes are possible.
-As it’s hard to control/arrange long chains to produce an ordered atomic array, polymers can be semi-crystalline (in part crystalline), with crystalline dispersed in the amorphous
material.
Ceramics: Compounds of metallic & non-metallic elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulphides)/ Totally or predominantly Ionic bonding / Strong, britle, abrasion resistant,
resistant to high temperature / Typically insula�ve to passage of heat and electricity / Inert to numerous chemical environment
-Degree of ionic character depends on electronega�vi�es of atoms
Define AX, AmXp, and AmBnXp compounds in ceramics. Give one example of each type. AX compounds occurs in ceramics with equal number of ca�ons A and anions X. Example:
Caesium Chloride CsCl AmXp compounds occurs in ceramics when charges on anions and ca�ons are not the same. Example: Fluorite CaF2 AmBnXp compounds occurs in
ceramics with more than one type of ca�ons (A and B are ca�ons). Example: Barium Titanate BaTiO3
Glassy (or non-crystalline) materials do not solidify in the same sense as those that are crystalline. Explain the difference with the help of graphs. Glassy (or non-crystalline)
materials do not solidify in the same sense as those that are crystalline. On cooling glass becomes more and more viscous in a con�nuous manner with decreasing temperature.
There is no specific temperature when the liquid transforms to a solid (as there is with crystalline materials)
Pure silica forms glass with a high so�ening temperature (about 1200 oC). Explain how this high so�ening temperature is reduced in commercial glass by adding network
modifiers such as Na2O. High so�ening temp is reduced in commercial glass by adding network modifiers; usually Na2O or CaO. This adds posi�ve ions and these ions break
up the structure. For example, adding one molecule Na2O, introduces two Na+ ions, each ataches to an oxygen on the tetrahedron making it non-bridging. This reduc�on in the
cross-linking so�ens the glass and reduces the Tg
refractory material is a material that is resistant to decomposi�on by heat, pressure, or chemical atack
Composites:
1. What are the two main phases in a composite material? The matrix phase which is a con�nuous phase and surrounds the noncon�nuous dispersed phase
2. Explain reinforcement or strengthening mechanism in large-par�cle and dispersion-strengthened composites Dispersion-strengthened composites:• Par�cle-matrix
interac�ons, leading to strengthening, occur on the atomic / molecular level; normally have “small” par�cles (10 - 100 nm) • The matrix bears a major por�on of the load, and
par�cles hinder or impede the mo�on of disloca�ons, so plas�c deforma�on is restricted, and yield and tensile strengths are improved.
Large par�cle strengthened composites• Par�cle-matrix interac�ons, leading to strengthening, cannot be treated on the atomic / molecular level • The matrix transfers some of
the applied stress to the par�cles, which bear a frac�on of the load • The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behaviour depends on strong bonding at the
matrix–par�cle interface
3. Explain the reinforcement or strengthening mechanism in fibre-reinforced composites. • Load is transferred from the matrix to the fibres (load sharing between the
fibres and the matrix). • Degree to which an applied load is transmited to the fibres from the matrix depends on the bond/interac�on between the matrix and the fibres.
• It is assumed that the fibres-matrix interfacial bond is very good, such that deforma�on of both matrix and fibres is the same.
4. Explain the advantages and applica�ons of randomly oriented discon�nuous fibre reinforced composites. • Reinforcement is ~20% of an aligned composite, but same in all
direc�ons • Fabrica�on costs are lower and produc�on rates more rapid than con�nuous fibre reinforced composites • Normally used in applica�ons with mul�direc�onal
stresses
5. Briefly describe laminar composites. What is the key reason for fabrica�ng these materials? • Laminar composites are a series of sheets or panels, each of which has a
preferred high-strength direc�on • These sheets are stacked and then cemented together such that the orienta�on of the high-strength direc�on varies from layer to layer
• These composites are constructed in order to have a rela�vely high strength in virtually all direc�ons within the plane of the laminate
6. In sandwich panel composites, what are the func�ons of the faces and the core? • Sandwich panels consist of two outer face sheets of a high-strength material that are
separated by a layer of a less-dense and lower-strength core material • The prime reason for fabrica�ng these composites is to produce structures having high in-plane strengths,
high shear rigidi�es, and low densi�es • The faces’ func�on is to bear most in-plane tensile and compressive stresses. On the other hand, the core separates and provides
con�nuous support for the faces, and resists shear deforma�ons perpendicular to the faces • The core, therefore, must have shear strength, to withstand transverse
shear stresses, and thick enough to give high shear s�ffness to resist panel bending.
7. Using the following strain- strain diagram, explain the stress strain behaviour of fibre reinforced composites to failure.
Stage 1
• Fibres and Matrix deform elas�cally • Normally this part of the curve is linear |
Stage 2
• Matrix yields (εym) and deforms plas�cally
• Fibres con�nue to stretch elas�cally (as the tensile strength of the fibres is greater than the tensile strength of the matrix) • Composite failure begins as fibres start to fracture,
corresponds to strain of ε
Introduc�on to Fluid Mechanics:
No-slip condi�on: a fluid that is in direct contact with a non-porous solid surface s�cks to the surface. In other words, the fluid velocity (both tangen�al and normal) at the solid
surface is zero.
Steady versus Unsteady flow steady if all its proper�es in each loca�on do not change with �me, unsteady if even one of its proper�es at even one loca�on changes with �me
Development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe V = V(r, z) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when
the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direc�on.
-The analogue of free-body diagram in fluid mechanics are control mass (closed system) and more o�en control volume (open system)
-Control mass is a closed system that contains a specific amount of mass. Therefore mass can not pass across the boundaries of a control mass.
-Control volume is a selected region in space. It usually encloses a region with flow in/out that we aim to study. Mass can cross the boundaries of a control volume
The most common proper�es in fluid mechanics are pressure P (N/m2, Pa) | velocity V (vector) (m/s) | temperature T ( o C, K) | density ρ (kg/m3) | viscosity μ (kg/m·s) | mass m
(kg) | energy E (J, N.m, kg.m2/s2) | shear stress τ (N/m2, Pa)
-Extensive proper�es depend on the size or extent of the system, e.g. total mass, total volume, total energy.
-Intensive proper�es are independent of the size of the system, but depend on the loca�on in
the system, e.g. temperature and pressure. an intensive property that is uniformly distributed in
a system does not depend on the size or loca�on.
-Stress is the force per unit area 1 bar= 10^5 Pa
-Shear stress is the tangen�al stress
Hydrosta�cs and Buoyancy
-All the forces (stresses) exerted by the fluid on a solid surface are:
– Normal to the surface (pressure force, form drag): Fn (σ), where σ=P pressure for
incompressible flows (we don’t discuss compressible forces)
– Tangent to the surface (viscous force, fric�on force, fric�on drag): F t (τ), where τ is due to
viscosity Shear stress and pressure
-The buoyant force ac�ng on a body of uniform density immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Conserva�on of Mass and Momentum:
Conserva�on of mass:

-In many problems, the flow crossing the control volume does not have uniform velocity. For example, channel flow or wake behind wind turbine in this situa�on conserva�on of
mass is s�ll valid, but to calculate flowrate we need to integrate the velocity.
Conserva�on of Momentum:
Conserva�on of momentum is the backbone of fluid mechanics. Without it, we cannot– Understand the propulsion mechanism of aircra�s – Analyse the performance of wind
farms – Explore the aerodynamics of cars

Conserva�on of energy:

DC Circuits:

Ac Circuits:
Laws of mo�on:
Kinema�cs: Kinema�cs deals with the geometrical aspects of mo�on describing posi�on, velocity, and accelera�on, all as a func�on of �me.
Kine�cs: Kine�cs is the study of forces ac�ng on these bodies and how it affects their mo�on.
Forces:
Conserva�on:
Linear momentum:
Linear momentum, 𝐩𝐩, is the resistance of an object to a change in its velocity defined as the product of the object’s mass m and velocity 𝐯𝐯:
𝐩𝐩 = m𝐯𝐯
Linear momentum is a vector that has the same direc�on as velocity.
Impulse:
The impulse, 𝐉𝐉, is the product of average force 𝐅𝐅 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 and �me interval Δt during which the force acts, 𝐉𝐉= 𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅Δt.

Work:

Work, Energy and Power:

Electromagne�sm: Magne�sm is an invisible force felt when all the electrons produce a
magne�c moment in the same direc�on. When two magnets are moved close to each other, they exert a push/pull called a magne�c force. This force results from spinning
electric charges of electrons in the magnet.
We can make an electromagnet stronger by: - Wrapping the coil around an iron core - Adding more turns to the coil - Increasing the current flowing through the coil.
The Meissner effect is a phenomenon found in superconductors wherein, in the superconduc�ng state, the material is diamagne�c and completely excludes any external
magne�c field from its interior. In the normal conduc�ng state complete magne�c flux penetra�on of the material occurs.
differences between hard and so� magne�c materials in terms of both
hysteresis behaviour and typical applica�ons:
Rela�ve to hysteresis behaviour, a hard-magne�c material has a high coercivity, a high satura�on flux density, high hysteresis energy losses, and a low ini�al permeability; a so�
magne�c material, on the other hand, has a high ini�al permeability, a low coercivity, and low hysteresis energy losses.
With regard to applica�ons:
So� magne�c materials are used in devices that experience alterna�ng and when energy losses must be low – such as transformer cores, generators, motors (electromagnet), and
switching circuits .Hard magne�c materials are used in applica�ons that require permanent magnets – such as motors (permanent magnet motors), audio and video recorders,
hearing aids, and computer peripherals.