ELectron: a subatomic particle with a 1- charge and a relative mass of -1/1840.
Shells further
Proton: a subatmoic particle with a 1+ charge and a relative mass of 1+.away from
nucleus have
Neutron: a subatomic particle with a 0 charge and a relative mass of 1+.
higher energies
Nuclus: the central region of an atom made up of protons and neutrons.
Subatomic Particles: very small particles from which all atoms are made of.
Electronic Configuration: the arrangement of electrons within the electron shells of an
atom.
Element: A substance which cannot be further divided into simpler
substances
Compound: A Subsatnce formed by the combination of two or more
elements
Misture: Two or more substances mixed together but not chemically
combined
Structure of an Atom = A central neucleus containing protons and neutrons both
positively charged sorrounded by negatively charged electrons in a group of shells.
Proton number / atomic number= number of protons in an atom.
Mass number / Neucleon number = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom.
Group 8 elements have a full outer shell.
The number of valence shell electron = group number.
Radioactive Decay: when
The number of electron shells = period number. unstable isotopes tend to
decay into other elements by
Isotopes
emitting radiation
Atoms of the same element with same atomic number / number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
They have the same number of
electrons as the proton number
doesn’t change as the proton number
Ar (relative atomic mass) is same hence the electronic
configuration remains the same.
Formula :
Ar = Mass Number x abundance ofMass
isotope 1+
Number x
of Isotope
abundance 1
of isotope 2 of Isotope 2
For Chlorine17
35
Cl and
37
17
Cl
Ar= 35 x 75 + 37 x 25 For the average mass of one atom
1 355
=
0
= 2625 + 925
100
= 3550 = 35.5
Chemical Bonding
Ions : ions are charged particles made from the loss or gain of electrons.
Ionic Bondindg : Ioninc bonding is the transfer of electrons from metals to non metals
where one donates and the motehr accepts only to obtain noble gas configuration,m it is
also a strong
Electrostatic force of attraction : force of attraction between oopposite charges
There are two types of ions
Cations ( Metal ions )
Formed by metals when the loose
or empty out electrons from their
shells.
The number of positive charges its
ion has = to the number of
Anions ( Non Metal ions)
Formed by Non Metals when they
absorb or gain electrons to their
outer shells.
The number of negative charges its
ion has = the number of electrons
gained
electrons lost
Example
2
Physical properties of ionic compounds
They have high melting points
They are often soluble in water
They only conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water not when they are
solid.
Describe the Giant lattice structures of ionic compounds
Positive ions and negative ions alternate in the pattern.
The ions are held tightly by strong forces because of electrostatic force of
attraction.
These forces pull the ions in all directions making the structure very strong.
This strong and regular structure gives ionic compounds their high melting and
boiling points and makes them hard solids.
The Conduction of electricity inside these lattices
In solids:
The ions are electrstaticaly attracted to each other so they cannot move
And if they cant move they cannot conduct electriucity
And so they don’t conduct electricity when solid
When Molten:
The heat weakens the electrostatic force of attraction leading to free flowing
electrons
As ions can now move they are able to conduct electricity
Whn Dissolved in water:
The water breaks the force of attraction as it separtaes the positive and
negative ions
As the ions are now free flowing they arte able to conduct electricity
Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonding : Occurs when a pair of 1 or more electrons is shared between two
atoms
Diatomic molecules: molecules containing 2 atoms
Covalent bonding only occurs in non metals
3
Each covalant bond involves two electrons
Properties of covalent bonds
Simple molecular compounds are made up of molecules held together by weak
intermolecular forces which means that it doesn't require much energy to break
these bones apart making them have low melting and boiling points.
Because they don't have any free-flowing electrons, they are unable to conduct
electricity.
Giant covalent structures
A lattice of a covalently bonded atoms
Which makes them strong
In diamond each of the carbon atom is covalently bonded with 4
other carbon atoms
These bonds are realy strong so diamond
Is hard
Has a high melting and boiling point
Doesn’t conduct electricity as it doesn’t have any free
flowing electrons or ions
In Graphite each of the carbon atoms is
covalently bonded with 3 other carb
atoms make one electron free to move
Atoms arranged inan hexagons which are
then arranged in layers and these layers
are held together weakly as there are no
covalent bonds between them
It´s Properties
Which makes them free to slide over one another
Making graphite soft and lubricant
High melting point is still there
All carbon atoms have one delocalized electron making graphite heat and
electricity conductive
4
Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, and each oxygen
atom to 2 silicon atoms
Hard and brittle Both have giant covalent
structures
Does NOT conduct electricity
High melting point Both have high mp and bp
Both are hard solids
Similarities of diamondRefer to delocalised electrons as ¨sea of electrons¨
Metallic Bonding and silica Both are insoluble in water
Giant structure of metal atoms include Both do not conduct
electricity
Metal atoms close together in
arranged patterns all lose their
outer shell electrons, which are then
shared amongst all the metal atoms
Because the metal atoms lose
electrons they becomes positive
ions.
Which in turn causes a strong electrostatic force of attraction amongst these
electrons and positive ions leading to strong bonds, which makes metals
Hard
Have high melting and boiling point
Conduct heat and electricity
Malleability and Ductility
Because these ions are arranged in
layers it makes them free to slide
over one another which in turn
makes them malleable and ductile.
Rules for naming the compounds
If metal is prestent in the compound it is named first
When the metal can form more thyan one ion They are represented as +x.
For example
Iron II is writen as Fe
5
Chemical Energetics
When you mix two chemicals they heat energy is either asorbed or released
Reactions
Exothermic C6H12O6 ------ 6CO2+ 6H2O
Exothermic : reactions in which heat
energy is released to the sorroundings
Endothermic
i) All combustion reactions are
Endothermic: reaction in which heat
exothermic
ienergy is absorbed , temperature of
Combustion = reactions with the sorrounding decrease
pressence of oxygen
i)All Amonium Salts are soluble in water
ii) Neutralistion reactions are all which makes them endothermic
exothermic
ii) All decomposition reactions are
endothermic reactions
Acid + alkali ------- Salt + Water Decomposition : Reactions in which
bonds are broken
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ------- NaCl (aq) +
H2O Thermal Decomposition : Heating up to
break down bonds
CaCO3 ------ CaO + CO2
Reactants / System : HCl and NaOh :
are releasing heat energy , their iii)Photosynthesis ( light is used )
temperature is ----decreasing
6CO2+ 6H2 ------- C6H12O6 –
iIn Endothermic reaction heat energy
Heat Energy is given out in all is needed to break bonds therefore is
directions to the sorroundings taken mainly from the surroundings.
Heat energy is absorbed from all
directions but mainly from water.
Sorroundings: Mainly water , polystyrine
cup, everything else Bonds breaking is endothermic
change
Bond making is an exothermic Test for CO2 Test for O2
change
Bubble gas Lighted Splint
iii) Reaction of Calcium oxide (CaO) with through line
water (H2O) is always exithermic Results:
water ( Ca
Squeaky pop
iv) Reaction of Acid with Metal always (OH)2)
sound
Exothermic Results:
v) Respiration ( combustion of gulucose) turns cloudy
6
Enthalpy Change : Transfer of thermal energy during a chemical reaction is enthalpy
change
enthalpy change is negative in Exothermic △H-
enthalpy change is
endothermic △H+
positive in
Activation Energy Ea : The minimum enet¡rgy needed for a chemical freaction to
initiate
Bonds are made = Energy released = exothermic reaction
Bonds are broken = Energy absorbed = endothermic
Energy Level diagram for Exothermic
Reactants
△H-
Energ
y in KJ
Products
Progress of reaction
Products
Energ
△H+
y in KJ
Reactants
Progress of reaction
