• - --...

" lllO Q
because it . Ulation), bina 0 nloff
rneth ods, gives good result1Y s .. ·Jnocf ectors 107
· . With Optical Sources and Det
(iv) p· · · · JtJuch
h e processes determ ine the overall
so th at excess. malJ\J J, t e de,,.
.-ices 024) h of the above thre
f h .h . giv
. enc1es
ffi1c1 . .es the.
1ve c . ·es ofe ac t ese t ree e
· ouph ng losses lllusr be s f1icicn c1 and the product o
IIlexpensive to do not takep f the LED . uit. and .its
manufacture.
o. en cy of LED.n J. unction an
d LED wit. h eqm.vaIent circ
Q.3 lln .
ffic1 shows p-
. ''lllch Opti ) and (c).
Ans. The ca/ sources 3.I (~ shown in figs . 3.1 (b)
Preferred Ill . 15 Bar-
-J
rier
.-- "\., -- -- -- --
diode) and L two most c0 non s °
81 gram . Free Electrons
---- -----T--
The
Ywork on th
for the
ASER.(1 lgh

following reasons
.
·

nve
of
ofOpticaJ radi .e Pnnciple . ectro-Jum.
0U
t arnpJifl
el ica
ation by co nmg el . lllance. Jt .
.0
tion
urc es
by
of
Sti

ectncaJ ene'°',.JS
Ill
.
No
Eg Applied
Voltage
++ ++
++ ++
,___
WitbAppUed
(1) 'T'L • - -QJ'llJ ++ ++ Forward Voltage
inerrs . .
(ii) The rna u siz e is cor n ++ ++ (c)
PatibJe With (h) '
... Y have a s. the
(UI) Th eir IInp Je sol id
SOiid uir e"" sta te stru c Fig. 3.1
-state electron; Pow er req ....,en ts Ds are excited
q_i_cs
. are low 8.0d (i) Mechanism ofExcita
don-Almost all commercial LE
Q.4. II. .
ugh a foiward biased jun ction. There are
o.., ca11
Hie Ilse l.e /)
. injection of minority carriers thro nel ing. The efficiency
Ans_ An che excitation and tun
LE o is a as an Optic . ther methods ofexcitation - avalan by the ex p~ ion
to a fof\\r a/ so11rc~ 1 y carriers) is given
to th ard bias . P-o se.r nico
n
d
Uct or b• , citation (for injection.of minorit
e n-type ' I.e. Wh en th I
e neg ativ e t;,. ::. ich e111 its P .•.•. (i)
Tl ·=
lYpe .material rnatenaJ. In th. of the ex + In + lrb
Ip
condition th maJ
from P-lYpe and extracted ~sorn the , e electrons
th.at rna teri aJ IP = Hole current
towa:::~-
COJllb •
Thus,
Other
foC::~cdes
t,;an d cro ss
!he ~;~ e;a ter iaJ . Thea:. '
bias
the cau ses
ect as th .
the elec e lllJ
I0 = Electron current
Irb = Recombination cur ren t (
_
the current due to the recombinatio
ion)
n
the Ulation of elec ons and h . depJect·1 letion reg
CUrren t n-. 1 . 00 a
trons of carriers in the junction dep
.. - to be ole s of tb thro ugh the diode.
•"-·~••-L
iJ ity of ~-=
u
supplied conen:u r
t lioi..t c-
5U • .ror c
rea
. IP + In + lrb = Total curren
t flow ing
ombination
•er s fl
__--• _ •or reco .rnb. inuousJy in Order tonuo· · onn be increased by reducing rec
Gs. ...._~9 The excitation efficiency can es ce, where
pla
• -:-· 11- ·
""cac:l'i/Je ,,,._
1hatio0 .
- rrent an? electron current. We
know that recombination tak
n current can be
.~ ..,,,..fl
'.iA;.....__ -
•.
.,,e ope ro •
lio11 Of1.•
l!8 OfJ.£1),. 1gJ,1 elll ilti,
-s "" d ;,, . ng d1i
• e depletion region meets hthed" d
ecreased by d ecreas .
mg t e
surface. The recombinatio
10 e pen .meter to a mm1mum th at IS stl
. . . ·11
• ..
· '.leclio11 1.As... 0
.
ice area essential for obtain d
ing the desired valuethof
hmpahble with 'the devb" . . .
!ED/\ IS. a. n...0 J. •,r
(R. GP•. r.; e curr ent The ma . can aIso be decrease by mamtammg e
tion
UQcfj0 de s. · recom in the depletion region
r-
sem i ombination centers
as ~ ity of surface states and rec
Po110 _,. n ·
. mg basic cond ·
. . . Processes ow as possible. • g a· p+-n Jun
· •
( In) can· be· reduced by makin ction,
The elec tr t
instead 0 f . on curren d. Since, we kno w tha t
simple p-n junction with N 8 >>N

(::)oc~ obtain the highest efficiency

ot
IOOo/.With all these consideratio
0
Whereas range is 30 to
108 Optical Fiber Commun1cac1on lf'{,~PV.
.. , S,7i . d tor-air interface by the rays wmcn
(ii) Recombination Process - In the excita .lelt,, ~ 4) . t the se••· ·· 1
gl greater than the cntica ang1e 8c· ·
- 1con uc
electron-hole pairs are injected ~n tl~e appropriate side or!•on ~ · ~oz oectlofl a rface at an an e
the next process is the rec~n~bmat1on o: th~se pairs. l-lohe~"llt, c,~111reductor su
IJ11 1·coll
recombination is to be radiatwe reco~bmat1on. Effici W~~ c5c~ ~ ,..-,:---
n1
o GaP and 16o for GaA s. . .
recombination is given by the expression as ency of tl\lch si110c n~ gle is 17_ ~or_ d t obtain high extraction efficiency.
f this an rn1n1Jlllse o •
n _ 'tnrb I · 111e O should be f LED's and Injection LASER Diode
·irb - - vo
wese IOsses tages o
d p isad"ao . comparison with mJect1on asers. ome . . . 1 S
tnrb + trb I+ _!m_
I ocs afl . d antages in
tnrb . \'llotllti anYd1sa v .
~ave Jll • ower coupled into a fiber (microwatts)
where, trrb = Non-radiative life time of the carrier : e,,, l wer opttca1 p 'dth
trt, =Radiative life time. · ar_ vsuallY o modulation bandw1
(~! oenerallY, 1~wer . .
the expression (ii), it is obvious that Tiro can be in (~~! uaononic d1stort1on: ·1· lly appearto makethe LEDalessattractive
, (u1) fJ
ese problems rnaY . .uuct1ia·on laser. the device bas a number of distin ' ct
er by increasing t orb or decreasing t rb • B ough,th
cornPar ed to the mJe
. , . .
.....,nent place m optical fiber commumcation - . .
th nC

e ~ _increase the non-radiative lifefun urce"" ·ven 1t a prou..uu . .

50 which have g1 • • _ There are no mirror facets and m some
mdirect band gap semi-conducto•.., rad'I ges , 5;,npler Fabr1catton . .
e acceptor Ievels of the isovalent d . (i} i ed geometry. · . .
tdopant'tsruuogen.
·.... op
In thatcase theradi es no str ~ . . _ LED does not exhibit catastrophic degrad~ti~n ~nd
(ii} Reliabili~ . to gradual degradation as compared to the mJectlon
by increasing the number of ru'.., r 1 ss sens1t1ve . bl
. .
e recombination paths.
u~ v~dior ~ une to self pulsation and modal noise pro ems.
It is also u:nm
... Simpler Drive Circuitry - Generally, 1s 1s ue to the 1ower th. . d
ifLight- In LEDs, generally
(iii) d reduced temperature dependance that makes temperature
J.UD of the p-njunction and currents an . .
.conductor for reaching nsation circuits unnecessary. .
(iv) Cost - The si~pler constru~tio~ of the LED leads to much
eyes of the observ
dcost that is always hkely to be mamtam~d.
·s less than wha
(v) Linearity - Ideally, the LED has a linear light output against
tcharacteristic, unlike the injection laser. This can prove advantageous
analog modulation is concerned. .
(vi) Generally Less Temperature Dependence - Light output against
tc~aracteristic is less influenced by temperature than the corresponding
nstic for injection laser. Furthermore, the LED is not a threshold ·
and hence raising the temperature does not increase the threshold current
lhe operating point and thus halt operation. · . . '.
. w,
Q.f. lhscribe •i,Ln tne ,L •
aid of suitable dulgra,ns the 111echanis111 •
1MJ11
·

n °/lightfrom an LED. · (R.GP.Y., Nov. 2019)

7. .rit
Refer the ans. of Q.S.
. .' . .- . .-·: .
· !:,. :';~~ th~ •"".••t111•s •"" drawbacls of 111, LED •
•11J•cao,i ,-... fM ,,.. ., • so•n• in opdc., ,,_
Ill.
lefer th · (.I.GP.Y., J.,. »1tJ
e ans. of Q.5.
 Optical Fiber Communication fR,GP, Optical Sources and Detectors 111
110
Q.8. Briefly discuss the various types.ofLEr,
4) . as well as its entire plane surface. Output ohh
Or ··~-- . . ncuon . .h . ese
thCJll . . which does not suit wit optical fibers.
r a,,.,-
With the help of schematic diagram ex,,l • · ftoWra, J1ance,ed in fiber appltcat1ons,
. . it. must have a high radianc
Or
us quantum effi1c1ency
1.JD to beh'gh . an d a f:ast emission responsee
g with ~ h radiance output and a high quantum efficiency the
1
What do you understand
. by heterostructu
. · resp ··· .· 11 · a i,ig · 1em1ss10n
. . nee d to be confined to' the
btain h stimulated optica
Ans. LEDs on the basts of thetr structure ca . . 1 _e junction, where rad'1at'1ve recomb'matmn
jers and · occurs. This
two types - . n be on of th e P 0 oying a heterojunction structure, in which a ~n junction
(i) Homojunction LEDs (ii) Hete . '• .. : 1 of similar
·eved by eJ11ierials
. . roJuncij crystalline structure but with different
HomoJunctton LEDs are basically a p-n .u . .. 1-wo rna
f active indices. ne sueh effi1c1ent
O . confi gurat1on,
. known
bY
semiconductor material. These LEDs are surt'.1ace
J nction
emi d
els ao re ~re is shown in fig. 3.2. This is made up of two different
b
eteroStruc h side of the active
· regton.
· Here the diflierence m · energy
Light Guiding Recombination
and Carrier alloY d.
on eacnt layers confine the charge earners. and proV1de. a more
1-type Confinement Region the a J~c;or the light. The differences in the refractive indices of the
GaAs Layer n-type
S1bstnte n-type G•1-yAlyAs Layer
l outpu onfine the optical field to the central active layer. Such a
Ga1 -1 Al1 As P·type , \ayers c . h h'gh ffi .
yields high radiance output wit i e 1c1ency.
... 1 fUII Ga1-1:AI1: , arameters which affect the performance of device are optical
..., 0.3 pm .., 1 fllD ..
I • oth·erthe . earner
P active region, . recomb'matton . at the heterostructure
. n ofa 1aA/As Doub/~ Heteros : :Oping concentration of the active layer and active layer thickness.
,
I
I
•I
I
'- ~ 'basic structures of LED which are used for fiber optics are -
I I 0
I
:
I
I
(i) Surface-emitter LED (S-LED) (ii) Edge-emitter LED (E-LED).
I
I
! se structures are shown in fig. 3.3. .
Metallic
..' Stripe Coatad

. •. . Llpl o.tpllt
(a) Surface Emitter~ · (6) A~ Ee• E..-, LED ·
(S-LED) Str11ct11r1 . . . .
' ' ; n,.J.J : ' ; ' .
surface-emitter LED the·~urrent is confined to asrnakc-.aW..,.
surface Th , : . di .., ........-•
. · e area is typically 20 to SO µID m
· nutter LED structure is appropriate for coupfuig
g 100 µm and the numencat . aperture greater
 Optical Sources and Detectors 121

. (R. GP. V., Dec. 2015)

of the word LASER. is. Light Ampl'f1i1cat1on . .
II expansion by
. . . t em ission m h .
ssion of Radiat10n. In 1aser, the bas.
hgh
ic . ec anism
lications may be
at of LED. The source of laser. m vanous app
No matter whatever
an insulating .cry. stah1, or a semiconductor.
coherence, i.e. the
e emitted radiat10n as temporal and spatial
n is highly mo nochromatic and very
directional. For optical
ively used as laser
ons, sem iconductor laser diodes are extens

general1y divided into four types -

uid dye lasers
Solid state lasers (ii) Gas lasers (iii) Liq
rs).
Solid state diode lasers (semi-conductor lase
on an d stimulated
istinguish between spo nta neo us emissi
lain Fabry-Perot
at is lasing condition in a laser dio de? Exp
(R.GP.V., June 2004)
a laser diode.
Or
ctor injection laser
e the principle of working of a semicondu
·(R.GP. V., Dec. 2003)
its typical structure.
on can be explained
e basic working principle of laser or laser acti
interact with each
theory, according to which light and matter
te packets of en~rgy or quanta called as
photons. According to
es and they
ms exist only in certain discrete energy stat
ission of
gy state to another by absorption and/or em
then
el at ~gher state and E1 be that at lower state,
states, will be given by ·
-E1 =hv12
or emitted radiation·
6 X }0-34 JS .. .
,
om lower energy state to higher
by any one of the following three

~ emission (iii) Stiinulated

1• When
a pho.ton
the higher energy
the atom
'
2,U
 . , E2 Initia
Optical Sources and Detectors 123
I

d' d . kn
~
rot resonator
~) . used in laser 10 es is own as Fabry-Pe
.µm wide and 0.1-0.2 µm
jcal ca~tJtYtely 250-500 µm long; 5-15 . f fl .
ro,orna l'. db
. 1o~ e y a pair o at, partially reflecting
apP ot resonator 1••••s
(a) cy-Per ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
ed towa rd
'1 -o -- -- - L -- -- -- i;. . .
rec t .

) -
forrn a cavity Optical
Spontaneo u,
E
lllissJoa
ofig. 3.1 1. The
..,,,ed acts like
o,,..
Jlato r whtc
. h C Amplifying Medium Output

(h)
sitive feedback ---- ---- ---- ----- ---- ---- ---- ----
Mirror •
. -
ho tons by Mir~or er Stru ctur e Inco rporatin g
p • ors at Ftg. 3.11 Basic Las
th Plan e Mi" ors
at he mirr1.ty .
of t e cav .
er diode employing a Fabr y-Pe rot cavi ty is shown in fig. 3.12 . In
lle] c1efts a]ong natura]
(c) , e, mirrors are fo1111ed by making two para
mirrors used provide a
Sometimes h Pio 3 . · planes of the sem iconductor crysta1. The
to tnak a dow w en atom rs . . . . ..,. .Jo . The device, thus acts as
e rn1tra1I . tical feed back in the longitudinal direction
Thi y at higher energy pensates the optical losses
ener gy hv12 on ~:a rd tran sition. ator having a gain mechanism which com
~ systern. This s can be done b • characteristic resonant
energy state in the cavity. This device has a set of
acts wi~ balanced by the system
second Phot~nc;us_ing it to retur:~oton inter ies at which the optical power loss is just
lower state 11N light. The edges of the
called sti111u1i . his process of Ph o the
oton e · ion . "' e diode starts oscillating and thus emitting
ated en,• . . . ·.,. s along these directions.
. In therr n 1Ss1 on miss as sho re roughene d to reduce unwanted emission
.. .
level atom. ~I equilibrium cond.·itJon , the lo . ..
state J:L I~ syste m con .
lts . , t
_aIDs mor e atom wer ener gy
the . ~- This resu
isn: 1de nt Photons
die ssary to incre ·
w~try
get
negligible stim~l c:;p ared to
abso rbed. 8 a . emission,
d ~t,. ~o achi eve opti .
,PopuJation of as~ the sti.rnulate
~. Thi~ can ~.
as /JO p~: c1~ d .atoms in t::"s ,s10
gy state.
. . _inversion. .· . '- ~Igh er ener
lDVers1on ., . -· ... ,
can be achi•eved· ·b . . -
. · . .,
~ f
!_ ~~ cond uctio b r usin g Pum ping
-'.UCVJce contacts ~ ,~-~ -~ fille4 _by inj
· · :,
of,.. __ · -· ··
.aclliCf diocte ; · .,· .:
"hen Ji..a. makes poss ible light
~t IUDJiWbtion beco ·

B JI)
 Optical Sources and D
etectors 127
Wh ere ' the .efficient coupling of the optic 1 output pow .
. ,... a
for fibers with low nume~1cal aperture. The spatiai fold . ~r m~o the
fiber which may be obtained with laser source . ma!chmg to
is not poss1bl . h
nt emitter and consequently, coupling efficiencies a h e wit
. re muc reduced.
£ 1•plaifl the working principle of LED and also compare the
·
LASER. . (R.GP.V., May 2019)
Refer the ans. of Q.5.

Parameters LED LASER

'' ' .. Stimulated emission

Electro-luminance
Fast response in compa
Slow response
rison to LED.
ature of emitted Incoherent and con- Coherent and monochro-
t sists of various · matic
colours
·ving current It ranges from 50 to Itrangesfrom5 to40mA
l00mA ·. .
ction area during 'Wide junction area ::, ·n~ow and small junction
nufacturing · .. ··:;: •: ~:,: area.:
dwidth Range It lies in the range of It lies in the narrow
10 to 50 THz ·: ,, range i.e., from I MHz
·· to2MHz.
Low cost and thus ·· i,igh cost and thus used
economical .,,_.. ·. in the specific application.
. '
2003)
W,n,e short note on '_popu°Jatj,on iinversion~- (R. GP. V., Dec.
• ' ' I ~ • • • ., \. ,:.,. , _, .
.;_ , •; • •,
• .: '
• • -. - '
• • , , ~

· -. · ·.. Or:- ,,. .

do you understand by population inv~,:sion ?_. ~ G~ J-;, pe~. !015) •. ,; ' ' .. ' · J " : .. • .. • ' •

the ~ermal equilibrium condition,. th~_lower energy level E1 of

el atof!tlc. system has m<.>re .atoms·_'·tban·_th~ upper.energy level E2.
n,.which is normal for stn'.ictures· at room·temperature, is shown
~a). But, to ob~iri optic.al ~·mpi,ifi~aticm:,: jt js essential to create a
um distribution of ·atoms . such that· the· population of the upper
I is greater than th~t of the lower energy.level (i.e~, N2 > N1)- This
called the population in~ersion and is· shown fig. 3.15 (b). in
. population inve~ion it ·is essential to excite atoms into the upper
Bi
and hence achieve a'nonequilibrium distribution. This p~ess
an external energy source and is referre~ to as pumpi~g._
!
~ lllle used for pumping involves the application of intense radiation
opticaf flash tube or high frequency radiofield). The fonner case,
 • •• • - • • " ·• t:f. Tech . Optical Sources and De tectors
oft'_to _lh_e .lasino tL,.'v'"·&.. I
I I .,
d 143
c,
-"">i
Ila,
. 2024)
(If'
A.A terial - It is a ro o f ru by crystal.
two points abov 1• 1J: l"'U

3.26 (a). e thCs~Old~

e tt,~•
•
(i) ,,t
i,11ork '
. µes"''u
Cav1.., _ The left end
't"
d
of the ruby crystal rod is made
. 1 fl
•gh, t end is ma e part1a re ector. Both ends are
(i i) r whil e th e n
ncclO aral lel.
1 re
1 1an e and r I pumptn . g System - It is the helical xenon flash tube
·
v optica _ The ruby crystal rod is surrounded by a glass
. ,oSystem d. k ld
cooltfl~ .
fl O wing co Id water, the ro IS ept co .
b bY .
3 _2 7 shows the construc tion of a ruby laser.
ctioJl - f ig. f rtificial ruby crystal of length nearly 5 cm
and
••sts of a rod_
witob ts
'ta ends p lane. The artificia l ruby is the aluminiu m
.
arlY 1 crn, . d with 0 .05% impurity of chrormu
• ~~3) crystal mixe rep laced by the chromiu m ions (Cr+++) . One
m oxide. Thus,
l'l'2 toms are end
UJJ1iniurn a h t this end become s a goo d refl ector. The other end
rodis silvered so tl uc
. s trans a ent . The rod is kept inside a glass tube which is
rod reroain h tube in Perfect Partial
d by a flas Reflecting Ruby Flash Tran51>are ot
de . The flash tube Surface Crystal Rod Tube Surface
of a coil. ) as
·th xenon (Xe g .
ed w1 th flash tube are
dsof e I
asing cavity :ted to a power su_pp y Laser
before being absorbed or Beam
emitted through the oduce fl ashes of light.f
mirror facets is called e [DO. st of the part . o
' used in produ cmg
photon Lifetime T{lh· For :: changes into the heat
a lasing matena l of Indirec t Modulation therefore to cool the Water
refractive index n = 3.5, (b) Fig. 3.27 R uby Laser
c~ld water is allowed to
the photon lifetime is Fig. 3.16 Direct and External Modu continuously in the glass tube.
about 2 ps. . . .
Since the photon lifetime is much smaller than the c~er life~, · ciple and Working - Fig. 3 .28 shows the three energy states of chromium
a laser diode can be easily pulse modulated. The modul~tto~ rate 1s, h whichEo is the ground energy state and E 1 and Bi are the two excited energy
limited by the spontaneous carrier lifetime, bec~us~ the_re ts a ~e delay.
the application of current and light output. This time 1s requrre~ to ac ere is a metastable energy state M slightly below the excited energy
population inversion, in order to produce sufficient optical gam to 0 1:An ion can remain in the metastable energy state for a period of about
the losses in the lasing cavity._ . . .ased s, whereas it can remain in the excited state for a period of 10-- s.
8
To eliminate this delay time, the diode 1s need to be D.C. bt 'ed en a_flash oflight from the flash tube falls on the ruby rod, the chromium
jl • •
lasing threshold current. The pulse modulation, then can be cam nt mthe rod absorbs green-yellow light p.. = 5600 A) and get excited
sta
modulating the laser in the region above threshold. ;:e~gy th Ei and E 1 by the transitions 1 and 2 respectively, shown in
tes
· stal· lattice
ow_ ese
Q.41. Describe construction and working ofRuby laser wilh d,t aOdexcited chromium ions lose some energy in collisions with
a necessary diagram. . d et wn infi come ~o the metastable state M by the transitions 3 and 4
Ans. It is a pulse laser in which the populat10n· mvers
· ion 1s on can rein!:3.~S. There is no emission oflight in these transitions. Since the
th
help of a strong pumping pulse. Its main parts are - ore rnort : e ~ etastable state and M for a long period (:::;: 10--3 s),
an more tons come to this state and the number of ions in the
 144 Optical Fiber Communication {R.GP. V., B. Tech Vi
. . ., 1//. se
tp.e~sta~le state becomes very (20.61 eV Atomic Collision (20 ~
66
large ·as compared to that in t~e E2 - - - ~ -- - - Ej · ' e~
ground ·state. Now photons of E 1 __.......-
I
energy corresponding to the red 12ot
. light (A = 6943 A) fro1n the· ~t
- ........_t'
surroundings stimulate the ions l
on-radiafi
present in the metastable state Traasifl ~
and emit other photons of Eo ----- --------E'0 oa
Helium Neon 1

energy corresponding-to the red-

light (A = 6943 A). As,a result; Fig. 3.28
the ions pas~ fro°:1 the metastable state ·M to the ground-state E0• Thesep
are coherent and unidirectional, a~d they get successively reflected at tilC
of the rod. This process is repeated so that an intense, unidirectional and
red light (A= 6943 A) beam is obtained parallel to the axis of rod. This~
laser beam. Actually, this laser beam is obtained in pulses, hence it
used for the ·practical purposes.
 ,......
111111111111111
~

146 Optical Fiber Communication

v rklnl - The W ..,,_ · 7
laser level E2 is far above the ground level and ' \ ; . When the powe r ~ or lf..N ~ o.t.c,.,,,_ 147
Nd3+ ions through them1al transitions from th~ .J ·· r to metastable
orn h .
states 20 6 J
•
ev·--vne
•net 20
Cohicle ! la1e, i1 1hown .
With H 1n
Ir trans fer t e1r energy to Ne a•-- . ·66 eV--.._.. e •net Ne atoms
population inversion is readily achieved between ' of abou a101ns b . 'd
•ion.
"""• •n co11· ~-~~ea.., ,,__
laser emission occurs in infrared (lR) region at 8 wave I3 tion invers
(1.06 µm). As the laser is a four level laser t_hc popu Nd . YAO
• on Thus, ·
'. . ,wl energy emg ~rov, _ed by the K.e. o
100 ii tom is to help m achieving populatf ~ atoms.
8
rhcan ex.cited Ne atom goes from metastableon hl"ertion in~ Pll'PC>se
n:e
'Vith '7• • llC excited
0.05 eV of
maintained in the face of continuous laser eimsSI ·o/c is achieved. .
1
operated in CW mode. An efficiency of better tl~an . os such as resis 1c'.\; a photon of wavelength 6329 A. This ph:at 20.66 eV to~ ;1orn.
.10d trial apphcat1on 1111 •s reflected back and forth by the milll P&sses throu..a. .~_o ev.
Nd: YAG lasers find many us . r tc They are also us wre, ' phase wi.th st1mu . l or-enc1 and . ... ..ic &as-
emits a fteah 6
machining operation like welding, holednl mg e · · x in ated photon This . 1
1iown • is aser transit.- 328
°
Q.44. DiscllSs constr11ction nd "' '
0
king of He-Ne laser
Md• -,:~-r---=••~=q,,
stable State
~6319A2'.'6ev
level diagram. · bearn, but ~'319A
Ans. From the ruby laser we _
t a very intense
ge not be used for the p :r •~•
...,..v
nd 1
obtained in the form of pulses a ~ ca:
continuous laser be
· . .
For the practical purpose, we reqmre
laser is used. . laser in which a mixture ~f he Radiat1ea1ess
y......_•
Helium-Neon laser is a gas . • ·
eases is used. The He-Ne laser bas the followmg ?1-am parts ·- --'----Ground State ---....1;__ _ __
- (i) Working Substance - It is a mix_ ?f
ture he~~ J ':
u A
• 3.32 ne tom E nergy Level Diaor,-- .ruNe A--
in the ratio 7 : I at a pressure of I mm of Hg. . .... .·,; f. fig. · & ' ..,,,. OJ ne-Ne Lase,
~:
(ii) Resonant Cavity - It is quartz tube of length 1!0ri 'Ill Q.45. Explain the construction and working ofcarbon dit»citk IIISa
diameter 5 mm with its ends perfectly plane and paralleL Ans. The CO2 is a fo ur level molecular lase hi h (COz).
tube is a perfect reflector while the right end is a pa~al re db d .ffi . . r w c uses th trans· .
~ccurre etw~en 1 e~e~t v1brattonal states ofthe carbo . _e ltions
(Iii) Exciting Source - It is a radio frequency gen , important Iasmg transitions occur at 9 6 n dioxide molecule
·
the electromagnetic radiations of frequency nearly 4 x 10! _ · µm and 10.6 µm
fig. 3.31 shows the construction of Helium-Neon
long quartz cylindrical tube filled with a mixture of heli
0) @ (To .
Stretch Mode •
One end of the tube is provided with a perfect reflector an
a partial reflector. The pumping of the gas mixtute.
electromagnetic energy due to which ·a laser beam of
wavelength (1i. = 6328 A) is obtained by the stimulated·

---
Bending Mode

1- f:'i'';
'1. . , '
(GJ
·--
~ --- ---
Asyrnetric Mod; - - Rational Mode

- - -
I(
(a)
p· Fig. 3.33 11 n. ~
ig.3.33 sh ihrafiona/ "" .J • .,., . .
w· ows th '"Wues of a CO
' Radio Freq11ency Generator Ith two ox e carbon dioxi 2 Molecll/e
ndent ni Ygen atoms de molecule cons. .
Jnqae■cy • 4 • 117 Hz , the bend~des of Vibratio attached one on eith is~g ofa centraJ carbon
n,. 3.31 Helium-N~oll ng lllode and t:s of the carbon di _e r side. There are three
e asYmmetnc mod:~de tnolecule i.e., stretch
 '--ODStr
dioxide I Uction - p· ~ .. optical sources and uerffcw,~ ,,. · - - - -·.
about 1 ter. It consiststg. 3.34 sh 4
with . . mtn2 and of a di harr-ows tL avelength 9 .6 µm. The levels I½ and E
a nuxtur a le SC 1.1.1e 2
vapours e of co Dgtb of 8 -..., llibe '' en f-s and 6C 3 Oat "'rnolecules fall to tower level E through
lransilio are also addJ N2 and }f~ut 260 betwele tate and . d2co rnotecule. Th'1s process mcreases . the
5
ns between th . '!be activ ~s in lhei . b w·th
~st:i
5 i unexcite
d citation 2 of CO2 molecules at the lower 1aser
e v1brati e cent-- 1
Bre,.· t u, onaJ JeveJ..8Q a- ,0..115r11us, the. eeXThe presence of He with
111s1 . CO2 decreases the
w·hldow
s er YTlter I -~
the -, w e,,,, ,r ding and the lastng action contmuous.
r acuon- . . .
n Of
w.,.. 111 vt

tl@kFiMHi•
I1 I E bY co l

,i''"
radiative and nonradiative recornbination lifetimes of the
1· r1•:, in tlie
active region of• double heterojunction LED are 63
"' ,espectively. F.in dout the tot• I comer
carrie . l:r.
. recorn b.1nati0n •
!,etune
62,,., internally gene~ted within the device when the µak e,n;../on
Gas In
0; ;, o.87 JD" at a drive current of 40 ,nA.
,g. 3.34 s
F,·
1Give•, , ,~ 63 ns, <nr = 102 ns,),. = 0.87 µrn. i = 40 mA
World chematic •
•late of COng - The !owe Dtagram o w,the total carrier recombination lifetime is obtained as
is llletastab1;• N2.are show st.vibrational '/ • C'or6o,,
and is ident' ". tn fig. 3 35 JeveJs of th 't :: ~,, +tor 3+ 102 ) ns · = 38.94 DI
(63>< Ans,
O.J ical in energy .to (O• Th e excitede 1026
Energy Tr OJ)vibrati calculate the P?wer intetnally generated, it is necessary to jindout the
Through C anarer Ona)
Iquantum efficiency of the device. Thus, , . .
--- ollfslona
---. (OOJ) 't 38.94
\, 11int =-=-=0.618 .

r·· I I
ow' the ·mterna\\y generated

Pint = T\ int -
hci
e)..
= 0.6\8 X 6.626 X 10-34 X
63
'tr power is calculated as'

3 X 108 )( 40>< }0-3

I '
1.602 x -19 -6 == 35.26 mW Ans.
ltr.... p X 0.87 X }0 .
II I •
10
>gen "nd :,;v~~-A d planar LED is fabricated from galli11• 11rsenille wl,icl, /,tU ti
~•rveen
.... _ C"rbo
th n Diox. n ex of 3.6. . .
the lllix e Levels inter:~ o C~lculale the oplkal po11¥rlr,dtld - .ir• • pm:•-•
of
lure of 1,1..; . phcal power for lh• dr,it:O..,,.. 1M ,,.....,,,f,u:Jor Ill lh•
ese exc. gases,
ited N ~.'.nterface is O. 68. . · .
be 2
Oica/ ii) When the opllcal poN¥r , - - - ..,.,.,.uy Is 50" of lh•
s power supplied, detennlne ,_ ,_,,,.i power eJJiciency.
(JI.GP. V., Nov. 2019)

01• (i)
Pi ·tn2
...
The optical power~ is given by the expression

~
4nx
.... (i)
u v\.,1Ull u; .., . _ ___ J - • • -· ..... •~ 1.ue ,ece
• ,. •~ · ~,1,
1
an electrical signal: which 1s th~n amplified ~fore ¾d°lltic .
when co
nsidering signal attenuation along the hnk th her Pr~
• , e syste o
d t rm ined at the detector. Hence, t11e improvement ofd lllllcr!
ee ~
and performance permits t 1e mstaII~t·ion of 1ewer
· I ·
repeateretecto
Sia '. Cia
both the capital investment and maintenance costs. lions
Q.47. Write a short note on photodetectors. fR.GP.f'.
Ans. For processing the signal at the receiver end of th ·, J
. I_s toeIectncal
require a device to convert the 11·g11t s1gna . waveform.
efrbe,
is done by the pltotodetectors. These optical detectors are of tbii ·
(i) Photo emissive type (ii) Photo conductive type ee
(iii) Photo .voltaic type. .
A good quality photodetector must have the foUowing char; ,
(i) Quantum efficiency should_be high ~t the appropriate5Peati
(ii) Adequate spectral and frequenc~ response ..
(iii) Low dark current _ · .
(iv) The signal dependent noise should ~.e -low ·_ .
(v) It must
.
be of
.
low cost
. . .
(vi) In an ideal detector, the performance chanJcteristics sh
independent of changes in ambient conditions, however, the detectors
favoured (photo diodes) have characteristics.(sensiti~ity, noise, internal
which vary with temperature-and therefore .compensation for temJJl:DI
effects is often necessary . · ·· · ·· ·
(vii) The detector should be reliable· i.e., it must be capab
continuous stable operation at room temperature for many ·years
(viii) Sensitivity at the operating wavelengths should be very
(ix) T~ r~produce the received signal waveform with fideJi~
analogy trans~sion _the response of the photodetector must be linear
mprcf to the optte~ signal over a wide range.
~ --•aemiconductor devices that can convertoplical _.,,
For a,eae,a1 ~ there are basicaliy three ~~
~l>O by hwident liaht ·
--1tiJ,Ucation by whatover , ..-...

to pro .
 ao,,,_. end.....,___,..., 155
~ --.. the fflllterial COlldactivity 10
. . . . _ in the diode CUrrent. The
• • To)(eV1111rr -1) .
I ~ I ·
ts photo generated C11freot ~ or .

Ec3J ',epresen dark current i.e., C'Urrent1Vhicb II-... - ~ optical signa1

...(i)
OHole
•Electron
,-epres .....,. -....,_,lia,,at
ents ere characteristics of PhotodiOde · ....,,._~·
are ...__ - . •-•ouau
0
ev Jt~amp . . .
• s Region - A change m mc1c1ent J»Olver --wn ID fig. 3.37.
»•• .
,-,,,ard 1 can be known as pho'°"""8Jc ..._ ~ • : - ,.. in
. e ~
. hr>Eg . Eg
:1 voltage, ; iode is poor c-
'
Ev pse ?f etheis operated in th_1s· · -
.
(a) thediod hotovoltaic
and sol :sed in optical
'·on is· rareY

. - A
Bias Region
Fig. 3.36 .· everse. 1 ower causes a
. t d in the depletion in optica p · diode
Thus intrinsic conditions are cr~a e f this device whic . I change m
incident in or near the depletion region n:rgy E of the fa rt1ona be kn own as
nt, it ca~ mode of Revene
from the valance ban ~
ual to the band gap e g d · conductive
greater than or eq_ Bia1Reglon
Chr ~ Eg) will excite an electron h le in the valance band . hi hmost detectors use.
on w c · I Jncreasln1 .
band. This process leaves an emp\o~ pair as shown in fig. dit . the exponentia Optical Power
con ion, Avalanche I

th~ photogeneration o~a; .:~;::: are sepa;ated and swep~. in equation (i) beco~es Breakdown
~ ~n~c ~eld to produce a displacement :ti, ificant and the reverse btas Region
influence o . f any reverse leakage current tcan be defined as - Fig. 3.37 V-J CharactautJa of
external circ~t m excess t~ of a carrier pair in the depleti

,
Ph0 to ration and separa ion •
~
1= (1 5 + Io) !'hotodiod~
p-n junction is illustrated in fig. 3.36 (c)..:,.. ·
reverse . . fi valanche Breakdown Region - When biased in this region, a photo
SI. Explain the detailed working ofphotodi?de '~ a ltd electron-hole pair produces avalanche breakdown, providing in large
·../J, -""""" brttdulown regions of operation~:; l•asingle incident photon. Avalanche photodiodes operate in this region.

;odes or phot~d~te~tors . ~re used in

back into an electrical signal. Since the m
• is very low, the detector has to mee_t
°.
I
.
"~neraJJy very sensitive detectors. APOs exhibit carrier multiplication.
nateJy V-1 characteristic is very sleep in this region and so the biaa
should be tightly controlled to prevent spontaneous breakdown.
Q,SJ,Explain th • •
• Princq,/e ofa PIN photodetectar. Drow it., ~
. .

Ii
tiz.e of detector should be compati ,_ <irc!UJ.

uirements are obtained by re tiUh suitab/e d' Or (ILGP.V.,_J1111• 2"4)

r material absorbs a pho iagran, e l .
from the valence 'Xp a,n PIN Photodetector.
leaves behind it a h ,1.1, . Principle Or
• . (R.GP.V., J,,_ 1NIJ
)Vork,ng ofPIN d i..n.,J.
 [R,G.PV., B. TI

156 Optical Fiber Communication on sernico?du Optical Sources and Detectors 157
0101
•s we co is shown m d junction, that gen . • 'th
Ans. The PIN photodio~ 'phot~diode 3.38 (b) . . electron flowing fi erates • current flow in the external c1rcu1t WI
The schematic diagra?1 ~ hOwn in fig. PIN pho
°~ J~ed the photocurre::. each Carrier pair generated. This flow of current
electrical equivalent circuit is s tector - Th~ . . (I) If the charge carriers ca .
Principle of a PIN
pbOtode
lightlY n-
P and N regions separated by~ en across e
o!
d ed 1ntnns1c
device so that
th . .
re
combine and thus van{; via ~e material, some pair of electron-ho~e
h h . h. A distance T.. or T for holes or electrons 1s
d by t e c arge earners on th -P -"'11
• 1 is gtV s that e m e h Th . . e average. This distance is known as the
large reverse-bias vo tage . rs It shoW · n
sto . lengt . e earner
. hfe.;-
•uue 'tn and 'tp are taken for electron or hole to
1s jfican. tlY srnall as compar
. completely depleted. of. carrie ·recombme. The relationship among d'ffus' 1 10n 1engths and lifietunes
• are
concentrations are ms_ign · as fo 11 ows -
0
. . this remon. .
concentration m 0
• f
'o-;-
Ln= \lun'tn
~
. Lp= V~P~P
I- Depletfoll Region -f
Dn == Electron diffusion coefficients
Electron=-0
N
Dp == Hole diffusion. coefficie~ts.
. .
· ·
Ip
bv :The unit of these coefficients is cm2/sec.
@-Hole
In the semiconductor material, optical radiation is absorbed according to
exponential law
(a) PIN Diode Detect~,
....(i)
ere,
P(x) = Optical power absorbed in a distance x
PO= Incident optical power level ·
Band p
GapEg as(A) = Absorption coefficient at a wavelength t.
A specific semiconductor material may be employed only over a limited
elength range. The bandgap energy E8 of the material calculates the upper
Conducdoa Baad elength cut-off "-c· When E8 is described in electron volts, then Ac describe
·crometres (µm) by the following expression -
N he il4
Pbotoa ~ + Ac - - (in µm) (ii)
. _E8 Eg (ev) ····
bv :i!: Eg Pbotogeoerated
Valence Ba■d The photon energy is not enough to transfer an ele~tron ~ the conduction
(c) Energy-band Diagram for a PIN Photodiode d from th e valence band for large~ wavelengths.
. , ,' Fig. 3.38 The photoresponse cuts off because of the too much values of <ls at the
If the bandgap e~ergy of the semiconductor s~~rt wavelengths, at the lower-wavelength end. If the recombination
than incident photon energy, the photon can free its a~ be Prod uced electron-hole pairs is short then in this case the photons
electron to the conduction band from valence band. bin edb nearly to the PhOtodetector surface. Hence the produced carriers
msor
free electron hole pairs that are called photocarrien The fue efore they may be collected by the photodetector circuitiy. ·
. ab sorbed m
.1dth wll. power .
. the distance W when the depletion region has
produced charge carriers as depicted in fig. 3.38
• , 18 given as
produced specially in the depletion region due to
where almost incident light is absorbed. The depletioll P(W) = (t-e-«•W)Po . .••.(lll)
lildwhich causes the carriers to separate and be C
 IilU l~ e .a

S.No. Parameter
(i) Sensitivity 0.4 - O: !
(ii) Rise time 1µs
(iii) Fall time Jµs
NEP 3x l0- 15 w; ......(ii)
@!) 112 )/W ·tron rate is given- as
13 eecI c
(v) D Sx I0 (cmHz re - 7J rJ>
-·•Oh)
n ofquantum eff ici e;: ~ ation (ii) fo en n-: _ ••

Q.55. Determine the expressio . t'ng the value of rJ> from equ -,- ..u u (JD)-.a
,-~
.a_
bstitu ' nP, ,
r.e =-bf''- ' ·
Ans. Quantum efficiency (TJ)
is defined as the fraction o ··•-(iv)
ton detector and generate the output photocurrent is given as
which are absorbed by the pho . ence, .P:
.
inals 7J i e
collected at the detector term ns coU Ip = ~
. Number of electro ····('Y)
TJ = Number of incident ph : : : Charge on an electron.
ity is Ob tain ed 81
. the incident photon rate (photo d)
ns per sec.o ,Use[rom equation (i), the responsiv
h
w ere , rp is 7Je
electrons per secon . '
corresponding electron rate ( R=- ••••(vi )
d~pe~ds on the absorp hf
Quantum -efficiency heavily sivity tha t can be A- -.1 -.-.~
hm the photodetec . (vi) is a useful relationsh
ip for respon Ul wY I:~
miconductor material used wit not all of the in • • t.
th
unity as dd '. uatwn
further to include the wavel
ength of the IDCJdent ligh
e stume effi·ciency is Jess than . . and
quan n-h ole pairs. In a 1tton, 1t IS s is_ related to their wavelenath 4
equency f of ~he !ncident photonression
absorbed to create electro
tage (e.g., a quantum e locity of light m air c, by the exp
it is often quoted as a percen
lected p~r 100 incident p
equivalent to 75 electrons ~ol f= ~
n coefficient, the quan ....(vii)
common with the absorpt10 l nr..-·
function of the photon
wavelength and must theref
o
value off int o equation (vi),
we obtain the finaJ exr•wiMIOD
ubstitutingthe
specific wavelength. . .lty
ODSIY as
n ofresponsivity of R = TJel '.
Q.56. Determine the expressio
(R .G P.~ he . ....(viii)
Or
,
.57. Define the term sensitivity. .
Dt'jine responsivity ofphotod
etector. .
.n~. The number of photons abs
orb d b ed the
d to characterize . e y a photodiode is caU
Ans. Responsivity R is use v,~ of a photodiode Th b to
photodetector. It is expressed
as
' "1rierpair, and he~ce ae : sotpti
on o_f photons in a photodiode tio n
cun-ent, is dependent on the de .•bs otp
1
am p/w att ie,1 o, of the light in the P o!o ricate the
R= P
Pr CJfic wavelength and ser_n,conductor USed to fab . . . vice.
assum ing on ly band 1.e ., int rin ,ic
r, ~e Photo 8a_P transitio ns
',, =Output photocurr~nt in amperes sed as current IP generated b . . r Po ii
Pi = Incident optical power in
watts. Ymc1dent light ofoptical powe
am ete r becaus~
nsivity is a useful par Ip :::: ::P ie( l-r)
urr ent pe r
· of the de~ctor i.e., ph~toc ~ {1 -e xp (-a od
 mmunication
162 Optical Fiber Co
on an electron din g upon the n:es an d Detectors 163
wh~~, -·.e =-Charge coetlicient at the se
mi ncs u/1 in ten , hu nd rec fa
Prirna
r = Fresnel reflection . \e 8 mplilica
tion of tlJe ~ ~e -e le ct ro ~ pair
sorption region rne
d = Width of the ab . CUrrent. This~ ~~dication 1s
11
cfu1 alt ho ug h ha s so Jt s _m ~n
and (R. GP.
an AP D detectar.
e working of
5
~1 of as an ide al electr on ~ ~ P
Q.58. Describe th avalanch e! p ,,...: ~ • ~
if to what might be
,
Or g 1·n an ac tu al • hot~~~ T b e multipli ca..:uon 1s.
alanche photi orTI eiver---"•n de••
VUdIOIO J t~
pl e of working of av .,,•vity of th e op tic al rec wouJ d lim it the
Explai n th e pr in ci (R. GP. V., Ji It ia llaea . .
1 tia) to min•muze this
Or orn ness. .
n tl, e working
circu it diagram explai
With the help of (R.

Or
io de.
Ex pl ai n br ie fly av al an ch e ph ot od
. or
an ch e photo
e wo rk in g ofav al ple tio n :
Di sc us s th e pr in ci pl (R. egion •:
I
I
Or I
I

che p I

ci pl e ofop er at io n ofavalan I
I
Di sc us s th e pr in
D FiP J, ,1111 r illk
ci rc ui t di ag ra m. Or Fig. 3.39 Pr in ci pl e
o fAP (')" • .,u uchelll c , __.~
S ilt ,., •l, M r,, . of •
pl ,o to di od e. ico~ Re 11 el, n,
al an ch e ki ng a Al
Ex pl ai n ab ou t av I may be re duce
d by ta very un 1fo
aterial. AvaJanc
se, with . rm_ m ranging &om be
Or
. very fast resp on
ot od io de s. d10des have an a nse tu ne
on av al an ch e ph seconds. Unn rtu n.
hibit a ,: ,end
Write sh or t no te 18, ~ In s to a few nano
· (R.G.P.V., Nov. 20 n va ry ;i th :a te ly ~ome devices ex fi
temallym ~ or tail effect which APD) ca
perafing conditions is ~
(see
An s. Avalanche ph
otodiodes (APDs) in d rea ch thr ough (R pr ob Jem an d
it e~ ters the input
ci rc uitry of ifie
ns. overcomes this
photocurrent before e th e photoc ~ed for most applicatio .
g
er sensitivity, becaus sche m af
This raises the receiv ted th the
wi ,g. 3.40 shows the
i~ghtion of a siliconti
reach through
ermal nois~ associa co ~:j;~o ;~a seh
encountering th~ th otogeneratpd ! ;rheldepletion re1 gi on doped, h ·gh eJd gain region
for carrier multiplic
ation to occur, the ph Ya ower field so rb in g region ~ .
is present In ;w do pe d ab
in .. JS ensured th and
at the
high' elecµic field ingregion is fully d' th e
re gi
phot
on
og
,w
en
he
er
re
ate
a_
d
ve
ele
ry
ctr ~> n or hole can gain
sufficient
colli ·
et
ore,greatcontrol ep fabrication ofthe
over th e
ed w el l be fo re
/a. e
~gion breaks do n1nwn
nn
JS Deeded. The r-yvse
ctron s, in . th e yale!}ce_band upon rdrin g' is to
ev en t lo w breakd own voJtag ev ic
bound ele ~_ uw,act i Clion edges by J pr
~ d excessive leaka
ge at
ni~m ts.reft;rred .to •
in th os e es
multiplication niecha el ectric fi~ n~re availa ble no;w
enng th e fie ld s
f1;8Jons. Gooddancodm
merciaJ
lerated by the high ga m s·
carriers are also acce tion. .This cies approachi n laOd .
ays wh ic h ha ve
. ,o iew hundre . Quantum ·
rther impact ioniz.a
energy to cause fu ora// ca,·,.;•,ers the g 0% . . ,
·
avalanche effect. o · mu ltiplication M created in th h odio .
de is given b
PD Detector -- ,W . e P ot ~
Working of ,an A 39.
I
M ::::-M._
is shown in fig. 3.
photodiode (APO) eates
I I A 1
rption ofa photon cr
~:: ::
I /'p\Ve ra P
In this device, abso cce~ P :::: . ge Va
lue
the total . .
hole and electron a pl1ed output current
rinia ry u of
the mult1
a high field region s is flrnu ltiplied Ph otocurrent . .
er pairs. This proces
dlereby creating furth