Optical sources 2: the light-emitting diod f both LED coupling [Ref. 1] and transmission pees sue = brief account ofthe operation ofan efficient LED which employs a double heterostructure, ae fiber have, in this section ar resonant cavity ang hc een ee te Yarious operating characteristics and limitations on LED peri inch pone ein Section 7.4. Finally, in Section 7.5, we include a brief deur, ‘on the possible modulation techniques for se iconductor optical sources, 7.2 LED power and efficiency The absence of optical amplification through stimulaieq the internal quantum effci device, Reliance on spon blac within the ttre due to crystalline imperfections imi! quantum efcicncy of 508 for simple he ection tse, double cojunciog (a recombination life yee 01 60 wo 80% 7 eee mission inthe LED tends mt ted 10 injected electrons) of he radiative recombination to tke and impurities giving, at bet an mnojunction devices. However, as wih cures have been implemented which 31 sive intemal quantum effin aie MTA respectively (ie, domaaHt) iy of ge Fakes Place tte doves ena in pain, 27.2% holes Ap is equal sine te trinsic mate 22 that charge neutral other and hence in theO% “Mier type will have 4 mach ta the electron 2 P* F8ion, for example, she file 'POneRtially with vy CONCEDation, Generally, the excess "Mme TREE. 4] sceording tothe sai oo densi Anis on) lepresents the total eae? ‘aly @ Smal fraction of theese) re 4 £2 gore = prr:LED power and efficiency 399 Chaps ter 7 ° ses all of the minority cartiers. There . nd compri i lerefore, in these cases, the cartier atEBICS has beg | Ait lifetime becomes the minority or injected carier lifetime gn ommticaton eae is a constant Ju flow into the junction diode. equilibrium condition coretical tdi je. nis ase, te total rate at which caries ae generated wil bea oy Tra BPS" have get supplied and the the eration rates. The curent density Jin amape ich are out este may be written as J/ed in electrons ae ny 20 see be rvacicrmay be writen a8 U/ed in electrons per cuble meter per second, when oie ations inca” (epecn an electron nd is the Se recombination region. Hence a rat nchudin, pecs arvier recombination in the LED can be expr ca ne ee nie mbinat LED can be expressed in the form (Ref. 4} tion 6.3.2, we n relation t6 the mn We include heterostructure, secniton for equilibrium is obtained by setting the derivative in Eq. (7.2) to zero. Hence tructures where this section are Ex) 03 nant cavity and a LED perform: ete futon (7.3 therefore gives the steady-state electron density when a constant current is fring ito the junction region. Isso apparent from Eq. (7.2) that in the steady state the total number of carrier ssanbinaions per second or the recombination rate r, will be: i \ 12 ) v ca) tends to limit ctrons) of the Srthy (mM) as) sation to take ing, at best, an | ee isthe radiative recombination rate per unit volume and r,, is the nonradiative vever, as with | Scnbinition rate per unit volume. Moreover, when the forward-biased current into the mented which | ‘ees, then from Eq, (7.4) the total number of recombinations per second R, becomes: m efficiencies eration of the E 6) 1eiistedin Section 63.3.1 that excess caries can recombine ether radiatively or nut". While in the former ease a photon is generated, in the later case the enerey ‘cit the form of heat (i, lattice vibrations). Moreover, for a DH device with a "selon (a few microns), the nonradiative recombination tens to be dominated ace rey : The LED vm Pination at the heterojunction interfaces. : Rite intemal quantum efficiency* Tq, which can be defined as the ratio of the tena pom bitation rate to the total recombination rate, following Eq. (7.5) may be "A Ref. 5), Ne ag tes nem eticieney forthe LED is obtained onl from the spontaneous radiation a ae : a enbined cia g "Nuc By contrast, the internal quantum efficiency for the injection ad tum efi us and simulated radiation. It By iencies for both spontaneo "Mee Section 6.4.1) a19 diode ch 0 Optical sources 2: the light-er dative recombinations per second Rearanging Ec i number of radiarive reco here Rs the total num ‘and substituting from Ea. (7.6) gives: a9) ct of photons generated Since R, i also equivalent tothe total number of p Bech em a se un tn = iterally by the LED, P., i Per Second and from ical power generated inant Ea (6.2) to express the inteally generated Power in terms of wavelength rather than frequency gives Fam mt cw Ww aay ts imeresting to note that Eqs (7, pb and (7.11) display a tinear relationship between fn, Ptal power generated in the Leo: and the tion 7.4.1), Sin (ANE CurTent into the device (sce Sec. int rlationships may be obainea for th LED but in this case * optical power emitted from an the Constant of proportional ges MUSt be multiplied by a factor rresoting the external quantuns efficiency forthe device, 4M overall quantum efficiency Jot the exponential decay of econ aries de sme depicted by Bg, (7.1 ‘ came itetime is ¢ Hijet the nomads ne OY Ea, ( reap Stor from Ea. (7.7 whe in 'Y Carrier lifetime is 7. — Alte ‘mal quantum eficieney Ss * The extemal qu (7.13) ee 1 the phtons itn ArT etn ag tated. Tatio OF the hc Photons emitted tg, the totay oa OWEVEr, it ig et "ot0ns emitted, from the device vo ort s(t A the of Sr iain a tive) ‘ater 7 an 78) £7729 e8) raranging Eq. (7) 79) second and from | Power generated 7.10) avelength rather ay maship between vice (see Sec mitted from an ed by a factor tum efficiency ative minority 8 Tuy (7.12) which, using 7.13) mn the device 1e number of re). LED power and efficiency 401 7.14) 4 thatthe 4 be noted ime expression forthe imemnal quant rom Ea. (7-7). ysroul lam efficiency could be ged ft 40! ganple 71 Be gn ot « calielceeaeenen ee ‘eiormine the total carrier recombination lifetime eevee ear 1 of the minority carriers in the 60ns and 100 ns respectively and the power internally gener. felength is 0.87 um at a drive cur- © is given by Eq. (7.13) as: he _ 60% 100 +t, 60+100 Sms Tocaleulate the power intemally generated it is necessary to obtain the internal quantum efficiency of the device. Hence using Eq. (714) 32.5 60 0.625 ‘Thus from Eg, (7.11): ‘hei _ 0.625 x 6.626 x 10" 2,998 x 10° x 40 x 10° “A 1.602 x 10? x 0.87 x 10% =35.6 mW The LED which has an intemal quantum efficiency of 62.5% generates 35.6 m¥ “real power, internally, It should be noted, however, tha hs power level “etbereaily emited from the device. Albough the Possible internal quantum efficiency can be relatively high, the radiation ‘a2 2° LED which emits through a planar surface is essential Lambertian Warp ite (the power radiated from a unit are into unit sali angle given "ed in yo Constant in all directions, The Lambertian intensity distribution i Pmisaget® 7 where the maximum intensity [is perpendicular fo the plana surface 5a ye! the sides in proportion to the cosine of the viewing angle ust sop ‘nog ofS With this angle, This reduces the external power efficiency joaien pen thelight generated within the device is trapped by total itemng diode 402 Optical sources 2: the light-emitting diod Chapte, 1@ Planar i, 10) = 1,008.9 Figure 7.1 The Lambertian intensity distribution typical of a planar LED (7 Section 22.1) when its radiated at greater than the critical angle forthe crystal ing. face. As with the injection laser (see Section 6.4.1) the external power efficiency nig defined as the ratio of the optical power emitted externally P. to the electric ower pro. vided to the device P or: hg ~ £1008 (7.5) clean al power emited P, nw medium of low refractive index n from the faceof 1 planar LED fabricated from a material of refractive inden Ref. 6]: 'ven approximately bya LED powe P Power and efficiency 493 Chapte, | P.O. Bef _ PaO 8X1 ggiap Roan 4G-6) sive power emited is only 1.3% ofthe optical power generated ted internally. se extemal power eficieMey is given by Eg. (715), Px 100=0.013 Fat 100 te P P dhe optical power generated intemally P, Hence: 13P, lair inter x 100 = 0.65% A further loss is encountered when coupling the light output into a fiber. Considerations as) xis oupling efficiency are very complex; however, itis possible to use an approximate | implied approach (Ref. 7). If itis assumed for step index fibers that all the light incident nite exposed end of the core within the acceptance angle @, is Coupled, then for a fiber in the face of | sit using Eq, (2.8): mately by in-'(NA) ay) inn? — 3 ae) | Ako, incident light at angles greater than 8, will not be coupled. For a Lambertian source, ] icraian intensity at an angle @, 1(6), is given by (see Figure 7.1) © of the | 1(@)=1, cos @ (7.18) ntage of where is the radiant intensity along the line @= 0. Considering a source which is smaller ‘hn, and in close proximity to, the fiber core, and assuming cylindrical symmetry, the ‘upling efficiency 7, is given by: ra (3.6. | 1 mal air | 8) sin 946 Hence substi Bo “tituting from Eq. (7.18): the 100s @sin 040 4, cos @sin @d020) (721) aB€ of opr ower emitted LED power ay Wefficiency 405 =10 logo 0.04 4.008 qe t LED etn in i om Eagle pos p=0013Poe avery small air gap (Le. cylindrical symmet seroled into the fiber is Yuet unaffected), hen from (a) 04 x 0.013P sje in his case only about 0.05% of the intemal optical power is coupled into the ibe. Me loss in decibels relative to Py, is: 10 logy 5.2 x 10*=32.8 dB fsigniicant optical power is to be coupled from an incoherent LED into a low-NA snc te device must exhibit very high radiance. This is especially the case when con- sdeigg graded index fibers where the Lambertian coupling efficiency with the same IM(aane refractive index difference) and = 2 (sce Section 2.4.4) is about half that into seg index fibers (Ref. 8]. To obtain the necessary high radiance, direct bandgap semi- crluctors (ee Section 6.3.3.1) must be used fabricated with DH structures which may be diven at high current densities. The principle of operation of such a device will now be sidered prior to discussion of various LED structures. 721 The double-heterojunction LED epniple of operation of the DH LED is illustrated in Figure 72. The device shown “sss of a p-type GaAs layer sandwiched between a p-type AIGAAS and an n-type : indica slectrons s layer. When a forward bias is applied (as indicated in Hea a Sm the nype layer are injected through the p-m junct a hoine- fe nt become minority carriers. These minority camel’ f = 5], recombining with majority carriers (holes) as they oe payne GaAs Yet i luced with energy corresponding to the bandgap oe ‘AlGaAs layer because a gtd electrons are inhibited from diffusing into the P- PS 2(b)). Hence, x igure 7. cecy Petal barrier presented by the p-P heterojunction ea ‘good internal | iescence only occurs in the GaAs junction Wey emit fro te | ‘ee yaisieney and high-radiance emission. once = re AlGaAs layer i large in "thout reabsorption because the bandgap, From 0 Example 8.1 sana wavelent of 085 Jim are iMGiOCH on «py “sp When 3x 10" photons etl AT are collected atthe terminals ofthe device, Dee i jt, average 12 1 ee esponsvity ofthe photodiode at.85 jm Solution: Prom (8:2: tel j ' number of electrons collected go fron Quantum efficiency = ArT eof inoident photons a L 12 10" R* 3x 10° =04 ‘pherefore The quantum efficiency of the photodiode at 0.85 1m is 40% From Bq. (8.11 med e inci Rarer The in 0.4 x 1.602 x 10° x 0.85 x 10° 6626 x 10 x 2.998 x 10° =0274 AW" 8.7 L ‘The responsivity of the photodiode at 0.85 jum is 0.27 AW" | his essen photons b the photo Example 8.2 A photodiode has a quantum efficiency of 65% when photons of energy 1.5 x 10° | are incident upon it, | (@) Atwhat wavelength is the photodiode operating? aie (b) Calculate the incident cident optical power required ms fa : quired to obtain a photocurrent HA when the photodiode is operating as described above as Solution (@) From Eq. (6.1), the photon ‘energy E = hf= he/2. Therefore: sat Ax ME 6626 x 102.998 5 1098 = E 15x10" = 1.32pm a The light toy 5x10 otocurrent of fore: LLona-wavelenath cu utoff 455 penny beer = 0.694 Awe gottom Ba, 64): Re - ‘peincident optical power required is 3.60 WW. 8,7 Long-wavelength cutoff ‘sewental when considering the intrinsic absorption process that the energy of inci ater than or equal to the bandgap energy E, of the material used to fabricate aesor Therefore, the photon energy’ (12 sing 8.13) Ths the threshold for detection, commonly known as the Jong-wavelength cutoff Pin Ais 14) Te Jongest wavelength of Srresion given in Eg. (8.14) allows the caleulaion oF A ed inthe fabrication So gy dagen, Photodetection forthe various semiconductor