LONG TERM POTENTIATION AND SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY Potential = charge difference between inside and outside

Learning This is how we measure the strength of the synapse, by how much the
- Connections between neurons strengthen (Long-term Potentiation) post-synaptic neuron’s potential changes as a result of pre-synaptic
Long-term Potentiation stimulation.
- An example under synaptic plasticity
- Thought to be the physiological mechanism by which learning With repeated stimulation, the same level of pre-synaptic stimulation
occurs. converts into greater post-synaptic potential.
Synaptic Plasticity
- Ability of synapses to change their strength After the pre-synaptic neuron gets a lot of practice firing and sending
signals to a specific post-synaptic neuron, it gets better at sending those
Neurons communicate using electrochemical signals (a combination of signals, and it will get better at opening the channels to allow more ions
electricity and chemicals) in. When this happens, the synapse strength is increasing. When this
increased strength lasts for a long time, it’s called Long-term Potentiation.
When neurons communicate, they actually don’t connect to each other,
there is a junction called Synapse. As synapses are strengthened and they retain that strength, more previous
experiences can be easily recalled.
Pre-synapse
- A neuron leading up to the synapse
Post-synapse
- Neuron immediately following the synapse YOUR BRAIN IS PLASTIC

When the pre-synapse is stimulated, it releases neurotransmitters, or Learning

special chemicals which then bind to receptors on the post-synaptic - Process of learning actually alters the structure of our brains at the
neuron, opening channels allowing ions to flow in. cellular level
- Brains never stop changing to make room for new information
All neurons have a surrounding membrane and the interior has a different which is a gift known as Neural Plasticity
electrical charge than the exterior of the membrane. This difference in Plasticity
charge is called the Neuron’s Potential. - Refers to the capacity of living things to mold themselves to new
conditions
The number of ions that flow into the post-synaptic neuron affects that
difference. Neurons are always changing their connections to one another, to meet
change in demands.
 - One of the most exciting parts of the brain when it comes to
The neuron transmits electrical signals to other neurons through its Axon, neurogenesis.
and receives signals through its Dendrites via connections where the cells - Gray structure in the center of the brain.
meet called Synapses. - Important for learning, memory, mood and emotion.
- One of the unique structures in our brains where new neurons can
When a person is born, each neuron in their brain has 2,500 synapses be generated.
connecting to other cells.
The human brain can generate an estimate of 700 new neurons per day in
By the time you’re an adult, your brain cells have about half as many the hippocampus.
synapses as when you were 3. This is because synapses just shrink up when
they are no longer needed. If we block the ability of the adult brain to produce new neurons in the
hippocampus then we block certain memory abilities.
Synaptic Pruning
- Process of winnowing down of unused connections Neurons are not only important for memory capacity, but also for the
quality of the memory.
The key to learning is Memory. This is because you need to retain that
information in order to apply it in the future.

Brain cells can change in different ways depending on how long you’ve
remembered what you learned. THE LEGACY OF DONALD O. HEBB: MORE THAN THE HEBB SYNAPSE

Neurons actually forge entirely new synapses over time as you relearn, The Organization of Behavior
re-remember, and reuse the information. - Hebb’s neurophysiological postulate: “ when an axon of cell A is near
enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly and persistently takes part
in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in
one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, as one of the cells firing B,
YOU CAN GROW NEW BRAIN CELLS is increased.”

Adults do grow new nerve cells. This is a phenomenon that is called

Neurogenesis.

Hippocampus ELICITED BEHAVIORS AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Elicited Behaviors 2. Reflex are elicited in the sense that they are drawn out by stimuli
- Elicit = “draw out or bring forth” that precede their occurrence
- Automatically drawn out by a certain stimulus. 3. A startle response is an automatic defensive response to a sudden,
- Many elicited behaviors are behaviors that we consider to be unexpected stimulus; the orienting response is an elicited set of
involuntary. movements designed to facilitate attending to a stimulus
➔ Reflexes 4. Many simple reflexes are activated through a reflex arc that consists
◆ Most basic form of elicited behavior. of a(n) sensory neuron, a(n) interneuron, and a(n) motor neuron (in
◆ Relatively simple, automatic response to a stimulus that order).
◆ Some reflexes involve only one grand or set of muscles. 5. Quickly jerking your hand or foot away from contact with an open
◆ Startle Response flame or sharp object is a reflexive action known as a flexion
● A defensive reaction to a sudden, unexpected response. In such cases, the perception of pain generally precedes
stimulus the response.
● Involves the automatic tightening of skeletal muscles
as we various hormonal and visceral (internal organs) ➔ Fixed Action Patterns
changes ◆ A fixed sequence of responses elicited by a specific stimulus
◆ Orienting Response ◆ Sometimes called “modal action patterns”
● We automatically position ourselves to facilitate ◆ Sign Stimulus or Releaser
attending to a stimulus ● Specific stimulus that elicits a fixed action pattern
● Can involve a relatively major body movement ◆ Species-Specific Behaviors
◆ Vomiting Reflex ● Fixed actions patterns that tend to be unique to
● Serves a protective function by expelling potentially certain species
poisonous substances from the digestive system. ◆ Adaptive responses that have evolved to help animals cope
◆ Flexion Response with consistent aspects of their environment
● Designed to ready us for fight or flight if an
unexpected stimulus should prove dangerous Quiz B
◆ Reflex Arc 1. Fixed Action Patterns is a fixed sequence of responses that occurs
● Neural structure that underlies many reflexes and in reaction to a specific stimulus
consists of a sensory neuron, and interneuron, and a 2. The specific stimulus that elicits a fixed action pattern is called a
motor neuron Sign Stimulus or Releaser
3. Different species of spiders spin different kinds of webs. Web
Quiz A spinning of this sort can thus be considered a species-specific
1. A simple, involuntary response to a stimulus is called a Elicited behavior. Such behaviors used to be called instincts, but some
Behavior
 researchers dislike this term because it implies that the behavior is ● Habituated responses can also reappear
more inflexible than is actually the case. following the presentation of a seemingly
irrelevant novel stimulus
Simple Mechanism of Learning ➔ Sensitization
➔ Habituation and Sensitization ◆ An increase in the strength of an elicited behavior
◆ The repeated presentation of an eliciting stimulus can alter following repeated presentations of the eliciting
the strength of the elicited behavior. stimulus
➔ Habituation ◆ Often generalizes to other stimuli
◆ A decrease in the strength of an elicited behavior ➔ Effects of habituation and sensitization usually disappear
following repeated presentations of the eliciting when the stimulus is not presented for a period of time,
stimulus meaning that the strength of the behavior goes back to its
◆ Long-term Habituation original level.
● The response slowly decreases as a result of ➔ Coolidge Effect
repeated stimulation, and one’s ability to ◆ The enhanced sexual arousal displayed by the males
respond to the stimulus then slowly recovers of some species when presented with different sexual
in the absence of repeated stimulation partners as opposed to the same sexual partner to
● Tends to occur when presentations of the whom it has habituated.
stimulus are widely spaced
◆ Short-term Habituation Quiz C
● The response quickly decreases as a result of 1. An increase in the strength of a behavior following repeated
repeated stimulation and one’s ability to presentations of the eliciting stimulus is called sensitization
respond then quickly recovers in the absence 2. A decrease in the strength of a behavior following repeated
of stimulation presentations of the eliciting stimulus is called habituation
● Tends to occur when presentations of the 3. Learning to ignore the sound of dripping water is an example of
stimulus are narrowly spaced or continuous habituation; becoming increasingly aware of the sound of a
◆ Repeated sessions of short-term habituation, spread jackhammer on the street below your apartment is an example of
out over time, can gradually lead to long-term sensitization
habituation 4. The fact that it has been several months since you noticed the
◆ Tends to be more stimulus-specific, such that even sound of the fan in your home computer is an example of
small changes in the stimulus may result in the long-term habituation. Such habituation tends to build up slowly
reappearance of the response and disappear slowly
◆ Dishabituation 5. In general, sensitization is less stimulus-specific than habituation
6. The presentation of a novel stimulus during a period of habituation Quiz D
can sometimes result in dishabituation, in which the habituated 1. In general, repeated presentations of a low-intensity stimulus result
response disappears in habituation, and repeated presentations of a high-intensity
stimulus result in sensitization
◆ Repeated exposure to certain stimuli sometimes result in 2. A stimulus of intermediate intensity will initially result in a period of
habituation and sometimes in sensitization sensitization, which is then followed by habituation
● One factor is the Intensity of the Eliciting Stimulus 3. From an evolutionary standpoint, if a stimulus is irrelevant or “safe,”
● Low-intensity Stimulus we tend to habituate to it, whereas if a stimulus is potentially
○ Typically results in habituation dangerous we become sensitized to it.
○ Often insignificant 4. We often fail to habituate to stimuli (even if they are not actually
● High-Intensity Stimulus dangerous) because our nervous system tends to “err on the side of
○ Typically results in sensitization caution” to keep us safe.
○ Often very significant and sometimes
potentially dangerous ➔ Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion
● Stimulus of Intermediate Intensity ◆ Habituation and sensitization represent two opposing
○ Often results in an initial period of tendencies
sensitization, followed by habituation ● Weaker reactivity to a stimulus
● Another factor is the Evolutionary (Adaptive) ● Stronger Reactivity
Significance of the Stimulus ◆ Particularly good at explaining the aftereffects of strong
○ Habituation and Sensitization help sort stimuli emotional responses
into two basic categories: ◆ Proposes that an emotional event elicits two competing
◆ Currently Relevant processes
● We tend not to habituate to a ● An a-process (or primary process) that is directly
stimulus given that it provides elicited by the event
some sort of useful or at least ● A b-process (or opponent process) that is elicited by
novel information the a-process and serves to counteract the a-process
◆ Currently Irrelevant ○ Tries to prevent the increase in heart rate from
● We tend to habituate to a becoming too extreme, which could be
stimulus damaging or even fatal.
◆ If a stimulus is extremely relevant,
perhaps even dangerous, we may
become sensitized to it
Quiz E 2. The a-process is directly tied to the presence of the emotional
1. The opponent-process theory of emotion accounts for why a strong event, whereas the b-process is (slow/quick) slow to increases and
emotional response is often followed by a(n) opposite emotional (slow/quick) slow to decrease
response 3. Feeling elated while talking on the phone to someone with whom
2. The a-process is directly elicited by the emotional event; this in turn you are in love is an example of the a-process. Feeling lovesick after
elicits the b-process, the purpose of which is to maintain a relatively you finally hang up for the night is an example of the b-process.
balanced internal state known as homeostasis
3. The a-process is also known as the primary process, and the Classical Conditioning
b-process is also known as the opposite process ➔ A process in which one stimulus that does not elicit a certain
response is associated with a second stimulus that does; as a result,
The a- and b- processes have some important characteristics: the first stimulus also comes to elicit a response.
1. The a-process correlates closely with the presence of the ➔ Also known as “Pavlovian Conditioning”, after Pavlov
emotional event. ➔ “Respondent Conditioning”
2. The b-process is slow to increase and slow to decrease. ◆ The elicited behaviors are called “respondent behaviors” or
a. The slow buildup in the b-process accounts for why our simply “responders”
emotional response to an event is often strongest at the ➔ Pavlov’s Discovery of Classical Conditioning
outset. ◆ Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936)
b. The immediate peak happens during the early moments of ● A Russian physiologist
shock because the b-process is not yet strong enough to ● Generally credited with the first systematic
counteract the a-process, therefore allowing the a-process investigations into classical conditioning
free rein to increase heart rate. ◆ Beginning in the late 1800s, Pavlov conducted important
3. With repeated presentations of the emotional event, the research on digestive secretions as well as the neural
b-process increases in both strength and duration mechanisms that control them.
a. The result is that the heart rate rises only slightly above ● Investigated salivation
normal during the shock, then drops considerably below ○ Initial step in the digestive process
normal following the shock and takes a relatively long time ● Well aware that salivation could be initiated by
to return to normal. psychic factors such as the sight of food
● Different substances affected both the quantity and
QUIZ F quality of saliva produced.
1. With repeated presentations of the emotional event, the b-process ○ Existed both when the substances were
(increases/decreases) increases in both strength and duration. actually placed in the dogs’ mouth and, later,
when the dogs were merely shown these
substances
➔ Basic Procedure and Definitions ● Each pairing of the NS and US during conditioning is
◆ The dog was restrained in a harness, and a tube was inserted called a “conditioning trial”
into an incision that had been made in its cheek ○ Several conditioning trials are often needed
● Whenever the dog salivated, the saliva would run before the NS becomes established as a CS
down the tube into a container where it is precisely ○ Measuring the level of conditioning can be
measured done in various ways
◆ Before conditioning, the dog would automatically salivate in ○ The most common procedure is to intersperse
response to the taste of food the conditioning trials with an occasional test
● Salivation occurs naturally and does not require prior trial in which the NS is presented by itself.
training (conditioning), it is called an “unconditional ● Components of the Classical Conditioning Procedure
response” ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
● The food is called the “unconditioned stimulus” ◆ A stimulus that naturally elicits a
● The sound of a metronome does not elicit salivation response
and therefore said to be a “neutral stimulus” with ○ Unconditioned Response (UR)
respect to salivation ◆ The response that is naturally elicited
◆ During conditioning, the sound of the metronome is by the unconditioned stimulus
presented before the food, which continues to elicit ● It is an unlearned or innate
salivation. reaction to that stimulus
◆ After conditioning, as a result of having been paired with ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
food, the metronome itself now elicits salvation ◆ Any stimulus that, although initially
● Salivating to the metronome requires prior training neutral, comes to elicit a response
(conditioning), it is called a “conditioned response” because it has been associated with an
● The sound of the metronome is called a “conditioned unconditioned stimulus
stimulus” ● The metronome is initially
◆ Procedure can be schematically diagrammed as follows neutral with respect to
● Before conditioning: salivation in that it does not
○ Food (US) → Salivation (UR) naturally elicit salivation
○ Metronome (NS) → No Salivation ● After the metronome has been
● During conditioning: associated with food, however, it
○ Metronome (NS or CS): Food (US) → does elicit salivation
Salivation (UR) ○ Conditioned Response (CR)
● After conditioning: ◆ The response, often similar to the UR,
○ Metronome (CS) → Salivation (CR) that is elicited by the CS
QUIZ G ○ Sexual stimuli are also regarded as appetitive
1. Classical conditioning is also known as Pavlovian conditioning or stimuli
respondent conditioning ◆ Aversive Conditioning
2. In the latter case, the behaviors themselves are called respondent ● The unconditioned stimulus is an event that an
behaviors or simply respondents organism generally avoids
3. In the metronome example, the metronome is initially a(n) neutral ○ It is something that one would usually regard
stimulus because it (does/does not) does not elicit salvation. The as unpleasant
food, however, is a(n) unconditioned stimulus that elicits a(n) ● Occurs rapidly, especially when the aversive stimulus
unconditioned response of salivation is quite strong, and sometimes requires only one or
4. During conditioning, the metronome can be labeled as either a(n) two pairings of the NS and the US
neutral stimulus or a(n) conditioned stimulus ○ To survive, we have evolved in such a way as to
5. Following conditioning, the metronome is a(n) conditioned quickly learn to dislike those events that cause
stimulus, and the salivation elicited by the metronome is a(n) pain or illness
conditioned response ➔ Excitatory and Inhibitory Conditioning
6. Each pairing of the metronome and the food is called a ◆ Excitatory Conditioning
conditioning trial ● Conditioning in which the NS is associated with the
7. Write out the term indicated by each of the following abbreviations: presentation of a US
a. CS: Conditioned Stimulus ● Result is that the CS comes to elicit a certain
b. UR: Unconditioned Response response
c. NS: Neutral Stimulus ◆ Inhibitory Conditioning
d. US: Unconditioned Stimulus ● Conditioning in which the NS is associated with the
e. CR: Conditioned Response absence or removal of a US
8. In the basic classical conditioning procedure, the (CS/US/NS) NS is ● Result is that the CS comes to inhibit the occurrence
paired with the (CS/US/NS) US. As a result, the first stimulus of a certain response—that is, the response is less
becomes a (CS/US/NS) _______, which elicits a (CR/UR) ______ likely to occur when that stimulus is present
➔ Temporal Arrangement of Stimuli
➔ Appetitive and Aversive Conditioning ◆ Delayed Conditioning
◆ Appetitive Conditioning ● The onset of the NS precedes h=the onset of the US,
● The unconditioned stimulus is an event that an and the two stimuli overlap
organism will generally approach or seek out ● Often the best arrangement for conditioning,
○ It is something that one would usually regard especially if the time between the onset of the NS
as pleasant and the onset of the US (known as the interstimulus
interval or ISI) is relatively short
 ◆ Trace Conditioning ◆ In classical conditioning, it is the process of developing and
● The onset and offset of the NS precede the onset of strengthening a conditioned response through repeated
the US pairings of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned
● The NS occurs before the US, and the two stimuli do stimulus (US)
not overlap ◆ In general, acquisition proceeds rapidly during early
● The time between the offset of the NS and the onset conditioning trials, then gradually levels off
of the US is called the trace interval ◆ The maximum amount of conditioning that can take place in
● Can be almost as effective as delayed conditioning if a particular situation is known as the asymptote of
the trace interval is relatively short (no more than a conditioning
few seconds) ● Dependent on several factors
○ If the trace interval is longer than that, ● In general, more intense USs produce stronger and
conditioning is, in most cases, much less likely more rapid conditioning than do less intense USs
to occur ● More intense NSs result in stronger and more rapid
◆ Simultaneous Conditioning conditioning than do less intense NSs
● The onset of the NS and the onset of the US occur ➔ Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, and Disinhibition
simultaneously ◆ Extinction
● Although it involves the closest possible contiguity ● A conditioned response is weakened or eliminated
between the NS and the US, this procedure usually when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly
results in poor conditioning presented in the absence of the US
◆ Backward Conditioning ● Also applies to the procedure whereby this happens,
● The onset of the NS follows the onset of the US namely the repeated presentation of the CS in the
● The US is presented first and the NS is presented later absence of the US
● Traditionally considered the least effective procedure ● A metronome has been paired with food synch that it
for conditioning now elicits a conditioned response of salivation:
● Can also result in inhibitory conditioning ○ Metronome (NS): Food (US) → Salivation (UR)
○ Metronome (CS) → Salivation (CR)
○ If we continue to present the metronome by
itself and never again pair it with food, the
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: BASIC PHENOMENA AND VARIOUS conditioned response of salivation will
COMPLEXITIES eventually die out,
◆ The CR of salivation will have been
Some Basic Conditioning Phenomena extinguished
➔ Acquisition ○ Metronome “NS” → No salivation (-)
 ● The process of extinction is the decrease in the ● The sudden recovery of a response during an
strength of the CR, and it is the means by which this extinction procedure when a novel stimulus is
is carried out, namely the repeated presentation of introduced
the metronome without the food ● In diagram form:
● Once a CR has been extinguished, one should not ○ Step 1: First condition the metronome as a CS
assume that the effects of conditioning have been for salivation
completely eliminated ◆ Metronome (NS): Food (US) →
● A response that has been extinguished can be Salivation (UR)
reacquired quite rapidly when the CS (or NS) is again ◆ Metronome (CS) → Salivation (CR)
paired with the US ○ Step 2: Begin extinction trials by repeatedly
◆ Spontaneous Recovery presenting the metronome by itself, as a result
● The reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS of which the CR is greatly weakened
following a rest period after extinction ◆ Metronome (CS) → Weak Salivation
● It does not last forever (Partial extinction) (CR)
● In general, each time the response recovers it is ○ Step 3: Present a novel humming noise in
somewhat weaker and is extinguished more quickly background during the extinction procedure,
than before as a result of which the CR recovers in
○ After several extinction sessions, we should be strength
able to sound the metronome at the start of ◆ (Novel humming noise) Metronome
the session and find little to no salivation (CS) → Salivation (CR)
● The phenomenon of spontaneous recovery is ● Dishabituation involves the reappearance of a
particularly important to remember when habituated response, and disinhibition involves the
attempting to extinguish a conditioned fear response recovery of a response that has partially inhibited due
● To Pavlov, the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery to extinction
indicated that extinction is not simply a process of ◆ Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
unlearning the conditioning that has taken place ● Stimulus Generalization
○ Extinction involves learning something new, ○ In classical conditioning, it is the tendency for
namely, to inhibit the occurrence of the CR in a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus
the presence of the CS that is similar to the CS
○ Spontaneous recovery may represent the ○ In general, the more similar the stimulus is to
partial weakening of this inhibition during the the original CS, the stronger the response
rest period between extinction sessions
◆ Disinhibition
 ○ The process of generalization is most readily ➔ Higher-Order Conditioning
apparent when the stimuli involved are ◆ A stimulus that is associated with a CS can also become a CS
physically similar and vary along a continuum ◆ Step 1: Basic conditioning of a fear response to wasps
○ Generalization can also occur across (First-order Conditioning)
nonphysical dimensions, particularly in ● Wasp (NS1): Sting (US) → Fear (UR)
humans who use language ● Wasp (CS1) → Fear (CR)
● Semantic Generalization ◆ Step 2: Higher-order conditioning of the trash bin through
○ The generalization of a conditioned response its association with wasps (Second-Order Conditioning)
to verbal stimuli that are similar in meaning to ● Trash Bin (NS2): Wasp (CS1) → Fear (CR)
the CS ● Trash Bin (CS2) → Fear (CR)
● Stimulus Discrimination ➔ Sensory Preconditioning
○ The tendency for a response to be elicited ◆ When one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus
more by one stimulus than another with which it was previously associated can also become a
○ Can be deliberately trained through a CS
procedure known as discrimination training ◆ Step 1: Preconditioning phase in which the toolshed is
○ Step 1: Conditioning Phase associated with wasps
◆ 2000-Hz tone (NS): Food (US)→ ● Toolshed (NS2): Wasps (NS1)
Salivation (UR) ◆ Step 2: Conditioning of wasps as a CS1
◆ 1900-Hz tone (NS): No food (-) ● Wasps (NS1): Sting (US) → Fear (UR)
○ Step 2: Test Phase ● Wasp (CS1) → Fear (CR)
◆ 2000-Hz tone (CS+) → Salivation (CR) ◆ Step 3: Presentation of the toolshed
◆ 1900-Hz tone (CS-) → No salivation (-) ● Toolshed (CS2) → Fear (CR)
➔ Discrimination Training and Experimental Neurosis ◆ This type of conditioning works best if the stimuli are paired
◆ Experimental Neurosis relatively few times
● An experimentally produced disorder in which ◆ Sometimes more effective when the two stimuli in the
animals exposed to unpredictable events develop preconditioning phase are presented simultaneously as
neurotic-like symptoms opposed to sequentially
◆ Theory of Personality ◆ Significant because it demonstrates that stimuli can become
● Inherited differences in temperament interact with associated with each other in the absence of any identifiable
classical conditioning to produce certain patterns of response
behavior ● Can be viewed as a form of Latent Learning

Two Extensions to Classical Conditioning Three Examples of Specificity in Classical Conditioning

 ➔ Compound Stimulus ◆The presentation of a novel stimulus at the same time as the
◆ Consists of the simultaneous presentation of two or more conditioned stimulus produces a decrease in the strength of
individual stimuli the conditioned response
➔ Overshadowing ◆ The presence of the novel stimulus inhibits the occurrence of
◆ The most salient member of a compound stimulus is more the CR
readily conditioned as a CS and thereby interferes with ➔ US Revaluation
conditioning of the least salient member ◆ The postconditioning presentation of the US at a different
➔ Blocking level of intensity, thereby altering the strength of response to
◆ The presence of an established CS interferes with the previously conditioned CS
conditioning of a new CS ◆ The value or magnitude of the US is being changed
◆ The compound consists of a neutral stimulus and a CS rather ➔ Pseudoconditioning
than two neutral stimuli that differ in salience ◆ An elicited response that appears to be a CR is actually the
➔ Latent Inhibition result of sensitization rather than conditioning
◆ A familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than
is an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus
◆ Prevents the development of conditioned associations to CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: UNDERLYING PROCESSES AND PRACTICAL
redundant stimuli in the environment APPLICATIONS

Additional Phenomena S-S Versus S-R Learning

➔ Temporal Conditioning ➔ S-R (Stimulus-Response) Model
◆ A form of classical conditioning in which the CS is the ◆ The neutral stimulus (NS) becomes directly associated with
passage of time the unconditioned response (UR) and therefore comes to
➔ Occasion Setting elicit the same response as the UR
◆ A procedure in which a stimulus signals that a CS is likely to ➔ S-S (Stimulus-Stimulus) Model
be followed by the US with which it is associated ◆ The NS becomes directly associated with the US and comes
● The presence of this stimulus then facilitates the to elicit a response that is related to the US
occurrence of the CR in response to the CS
◆ An occasion setter can be associated not only with the Stimulus-Substitution Versus Preparatory-Response Theory
presentation of a US but also with a change in the intensity ➔ Stimulus-Substitution Theory
of the US ◆ The CS acts as a substitute for the US
➔ External Inhibition ➔ Preparatory-Response Theory
◆ The purpose of the CR is to prepare the organism for the
presentation of the US
Compensatory-Response Model ◆ Additional Factors in Phobic Conditioning
➔ Often occurs with the drug reactions ● Not all phobias are required through a direct process
➔ Conditioning eventually results in a CR that appears to be the of classical conditioning
opposite of the original UR ● Several additional variables that may be involved in
➔ A CS that has been repeatedly associated with the primary response the development of phobic symptoms
(a-process) to a US will eventually come to elicit a compensatory ○ Observational Learning
response (b-process) ◆ Many phobias are acquired when
observing fearful reactions in others
Rescorla-Wagner Theory ◆ A display of fear by another person may
➔ Proposes that a given US can support only so much conditioning, be conceptualized as an unconditioned
and this amount of conditioning must be distributed among the stimulus that elicits an unconditioned
various CSs that are present fear response in oneself
◆ There is only so much associative value available to be ◆ A neutral stimulus that is associated
distributed among the various cues associated with the US with this display might then become a
➔ Stronger USs support more conditioning than do weaker USs conditioned stimulus for fear
○ Temperament
Practical Applications of Classical Conditioning ◆ An individual’s base level of
➔ Understanding Phobias emotionality and reactivity to
◆ A particularly salient way that classical conditioning affects stimulation which is to a large extent
our lives is through its involvement in the development of genetically determined
fears and anxieties ◆ Seems to affect how easily a
◆ Phobias conditioned response can be required
● We become very fearful of events that are not at all ○ Preparedness
dangerous or only minimally dangerous ◆ A genetically based predisposition
● Seem to represent a process of overgeneralization within a species to learn certain kinds
● Overgeneralization of associations more easily than others
○ A conditioned fear response to one event has ○ History of Control
become overgeneralized to other harmless ◆ Living in an environment where a
events person had some degree of control
◆ Watson and Rayner’s “Little Albert” over important events is seemed to
● John B. Watson and his student Rosalie Rayner effectively immunize them against the
attempted to condition a fear response in an traumatic effects of encountering a
11-month-old infant named Albert strange and frightening object
 ○ Incubation progressively intense levels of
◆ The strengthening of a conditioned fear
fear response as a result of brief ● Pairing of each item in the
exposures to the aversive CS hierarchy with relaxation
◆ This process might even result in a ○ Flooding Therapy
conditioned fear that is actually ◆ A behavioral treatment that involves
stronger than the unconditioned fear prolonged exposure to a feared
that was originally elicited stimulus, thereby providing maximal
● Treating Phobias opportunity for the conditioned fear
○ Systematic Desensitization response to be extinguished
◆ A behavioral treatment for phobias that ◆ Can be contrasted with systematic
involves pairing relaxation with a desensitization, in which exposure to
succession of stimuli that elicit the feared stimulus not only occurs
increasing levels of fear gradually but also involves pairing the
◆ Can be carried out with real phobic feared event with a response that will
stimuli (In Vivo Desensitization) counteract the fear
◆ Counterconditioning ◆ More clearly based on the principle of
● A CS that elicits one type of extinction as opposed to
response is associated with an counterconditioning
event that elicits an ➔ Aversion Therapy for Eliminating Problem Behaviors
incompatible response ◆ Aversion Therapy
◆ Reciprocal Inhibition ● A treatment procedure that reduces the
● Certain responses are attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with
incompatible with each other an aversive stimulus
and the occurrence of one ● Sometimes carried out with the use of imaginal
response necessarily inhibits stimuli rather than real stimuli (Covert Sensitization)
the other ● In general, aversion therapy is more effective when
◆ Three Basic Aspects of Systematic the unpleasant response that is elicited is biologically
Desensitization relevant to the problematic behavior
● Training in Relaxation
● Creation of a hierarchy of
imaginary scenes that elicit
OPERANT CONDITIONING: INTRODUCTION
 ◆ Operant Behavior
Historical Background ● Consists of behaviors that seem more voluntary in
➔ Thorndike’s Law of Effect nature and are controlled by their consequences
◆ Edwin L. Thorndike was interested in animal intelligence rather than by the stimuli that precede them
◆ “Dogs get lost hundreds of times and no one ever notices it Operant Conditioning
or sends an account of it to a scientific magazine, but let one ➔ A type of learning in which the future probability of a behavior is
find his way from Brooklyn to Yonkers and the fact affected by its consequences
immediately becomes a circulating anecdote” ➔ Its process can be conceptualized as involving three components:
● Thorndike also said that such depictions did not ◆ A response that produces a certain consequence
provide “... a psychology of animals, but rather a ◆ The consequence that serves to either increase or decrease
eulogy of animals. They have all been about animal the probability of the response that preceded it
intelligence, never about animal stupidity” ◆ A discriminative stimulus that precedes the response and
◆ Thorndike was suggesting that we should not accept signals that a certain consequence is now available
anecdotes as fact, nor should we assume that animals ➔ Operant Behavior
behaving in a particular way are doing so for intelligent ◆ A class of emitted responses that result in certain
reasons. consequences; these consequences, in turn, affect the future
◆ Law of Effect probability or strength of those responses
● States that behaviors leading to a satisfying state of ◆ Operant responses are sometimes simply called operants
affairs are strengthened or “stamped in,” while ◆ In contrast to classically conditioned behaviors, which are
behaviors leading to an unsatisfying or annoying said to be elicited by stimuli, operant behaviors are
state of affairs are weakened or “stamped out” technically said to be emitted by the organism
● The extent to which the consequences of a behavior ◆ Usually defined as a class of responses, with all of the
are annoying or satisfying determine whether that responses in that class capable of producing the
behavior will be repeated consequence
➔ Skinner’s Selection by Consequences ➔ Operant Consequences: Reinforcers and Punishers
◆ Skinner believe that behavior could be best analyzed as ◆ Reinforcer
though it were a reflex ● It follows a behavior
◆ He also realized that a scientific analysis of behavior required ● The future probability of that behavior increases
finding a procedure that yielded regular patterns of behavior ◆ Punisher
◆ Respondent Behavior ● It follows a behavior
● Consists of involuntary, reflexive-type behaviors, ● The future probability of that behavior decreases
which as Pavlov had demonstrated can often be ◆ Reinforcer and punisher
classically conditioned to occur in new situations
 ● Both refer to the specific consequences used to ◆ Discriminative Stimulus for Punishment
strengthen or weaken a behavior ● A stimulus that signals that a response will be
● Refer to the actual consequences of the behavior punished
◆ Reinforcement and Punishment ◆ Discriminative Stimulus for Extinction
● Usually refer to the process or procedure by which a ● A stimulus that signals the absence of reinforcement
certain consequence changes the strength of a
behavior Four Types of Contingencies
● The process or procedure of strengthening or ➔ Contingency of Reinforcement
weakening a behavior by instituting those ◆ The delivery of the reinforcer is contingent upon the
consequences response
➔ Operant Antecedents: Discriminative Stimuli ◆ When the response is followed by a reinforcer
◆ The operant response and its consequence are the most ➔ Contingency of Punishment
essential components of the operant conditioning procedure ◆ When the response is followed by a punisher
◆ When a behavior is consistently reinforced or punished in ➔ Contingencies of Reinforcement and Punishment can be divided
the presence of certain stimuli, those stimuli will begin to into two subtypes: positive and negative
influence the occurrence of the behavior ◆ Results in four basic types of contingencies
◆ Discriminative Stimulus (response-consequence relationships): positive
● A stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive
reinforced and in the absence of which they are not punishment, and negative punishment
reinforced ◆ Positive
● A signal that indicates that a response will be ● Only that the behavior is followed by the
followed by a reinforcer presentation or addition of something
● Are said to “set the occasion for” the behavior ● When combined with the terms reinforcement or
○ The behavior is more likely to occur in the punishment, does not mean good or pleasant; it
presence of those stimuli means only that the response has resulted in
● Do not elicit behavior in the manner of CS or US in something being added or presented
classical conditioning ◆ Negative
◆ Three-term Contingency ● The behavior has resulted in something being
● It is constituted by the discriminative stimulus, the removed or subtracted
operant behavior, and the reinforcer or punisher ➔ Reinforcement
● Can also be viewed as consisting of an antecedent ◆ The behavior will increase in strength
event (a preceding event), a behavior, and a ➔ Punishment
consequence ◆ The behavior will decrease in strength