Unit 7

Learning and Memory

Physiological Psychology

Dr Harry Moore
Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology
INDEX
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Learning
3. Memory

2
 Image 1
Experience

1. Introduction
Overview
Experiences change us; encounters with our
environment alter our behaviour by modifying our
nervous system.
Learning allows us to acquire new information and
refers to the process by which experiences change
our nervous system and our behaviour
Long-term changes in the nervous system following Note. Adapted from Shallow Focus on Blond Haired Woman in
White Long Sleeve Shirt Carrying a Baby on Her Back, by Josh
learning are referred to as memories Willink, 2017, https://www.pexels.com/photo/shallow-focus-
on-blond-haired-woman-in-white-long-sleeve-shirt-carrying-
3
a-baby-on-her-back-701016/ (link)
2. Learning
Types of Learning
Image 2
Video games
• There are many different types of learning:
• Motor learning: learning skilled movements with
objects e.g. riding a bike, playing a video game
• Perceptual learning: learning to recognise stimuli
that have been perceived previously e.g. correctly
identifying a face
• Relational learning: a complex type of learning that
involves learning the relationship between stimuli
e.g. when presented with a picture of a cat we can
imagine also what it would feel like, sound like,
smell like, etc Note. Adapted from Top View of a Man and Woman Playing
Video Game, by VAZHNIK, 2021,
https://www.pexels.com/photo/top-view-of-a-man-and-
woman-playing-video-game-7871537/ (link) 4
 2. Learning
Stimulus-Response Learning

• Another type of learning is stimulus-response learning (S-R), and

is one of the most well-studied types of learning: it involves
learning to produce some kind of behaviour (response) when a
particular stimulus is present
• S-R learning can be grouped into two main types: classical
conditioning and operant (instrumental) conditioning

Image 3
Traffic Lights

Note. Adapted from Black Traffic Light With Green Light, by cottonbro studio, 2019,
https://www.pexels.com/photo/black-traffic-light-with-green-light-4543111/ (link)

5
2. Learning
Classical Conditioning
Image 4
Air Puff Test
• Classical conditioning occurs when an unimportant stimulus
acquires the capacity to elicit some kind of response
• E.g. an eyeblink response can be conditioned to a tone:
• A puff of air to the eye causes a reflexive eyeblink: this is an
unconditioned response because it occurs without any
previous training/learning (and the puff of air is the
unconditioned stimulus)
• Repeatedly pairing the puff of air with a tone will eventually
lead to the tone producing the eyeblink response on its
own: the conditioned stimulus (tone) now produces a
Note. Adapted from A Medical Professional Conducting
conditioned response (eyeblink in response to the tone) Vision Test, by Pavel Danilyuk, 2020,
https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-medical-professional-
conducting-vision-test-5996611/ (link)

6
2. Learning
Classical (Emotional) Conditioning
Image 5
Rat Amygdala

• The neural basis of classical conditioning has been

most studied in the context of learning conditioned
emotional responses, mainly fear

Note. Adapted from Figure 13.7, by Carlson & Birkett,

2017.

7
2. Learning
Classical (Emotional) Conditioning
Image 5
Rat Amygdala

• It has been suggested that learning the association

between a neutral stimulus (e.g. tone) and an
aversive stimulus (e.g. shock) occurs in the lateral
nucleus of the amygdala
• The lateral amygdala receives sensory information
regarding these two stimuli, and produces synaptic
changes responsible for learning their association
• The lateral amygdala shares this information with
the central nucleus, which produces the emotional
Note. Adapted from Figure 13.7, by Carlson & Birkett,
response 2017.

8
2. Learning
Operant Conditioning
Image 6
Mouse

• Operant (instrumental) conditioning occurs when a

reinforcing or punishing outcome follows a specific
behaviour: the reinforcer increases the chance of
repeating the behaviour while a punishment
decreases it

Note. Adapted from Brown and White Mice,

by Alexas Fotos, 2016, https://www.pexels.com/photo/brown-
and-white-mice-2280794/ (link)

9
2. Learning
Operant Conditioning
Image 6
Mouse
• Operant (instrumental) conditioning occurs when a
reinforcing or punishing outcome follows a specific
behaviour: the reinforcer increases the chance of
repeating the behaviour while a punisher decreases it
• E.g. learning to press a lever in response for food
• A mouse being trained to press a lever for food may
randomly press the lever, after which they are given
food, and will soon learn that the behaviour leads to
food, thereby increasing their lever pressing
behaviour
Note. Adapted from Brown and White Mice,
by Alexas Fotos, 2016, https://www.pexels.com/photo/brown-
and-white-mice-2280794/ (link)

10
 2. Learning
Stimulus-Response Association

• The neural basis of operant conditioning involves

strengthening connections between the sensory circuits
Hippocampus
that process the stimulus, and the motor circuits that
produce the response
• The formation of new stimulus-response associations that
Amygdala
involve different parts of the cortex (i.e. sensory and motor
areas) is achieved with the help of the hippocampus

Image 4 Note. Adapted from Figure 9.11,

Limbic system by Silverthorn, 2019.
11
2. Learning
Stimulus-Response Association
Image 7
• As the operant response becomes more well- Neural cicruit
learned and automatic, the stimulus-response
association is passed to the basal ganglia, which
takes control over the now automatic
behaviour:
• When we repeat a behaviour, the basal ganglia
gradually learn the association, allowing them to
produce the behaviour with minimal influence
of the cortical circuits originally involved in
forming the association
• Now when the behaviour is carried out, the
original cortical circuits are now free to carry out
other processes Note. Transfer of association to the basal ganglia once the
behaviour has become automatic.
Adapted from Figure 13.9, by Carlson & Birkett, 2017.
12
2. Learning
Reinforcement Systems
Image 8
• We’ve seen how stimulus-response associations are Dopamine pathway

established, but how are they reinforced?

• Neural reinforcement systems strengthen the connections
between the sensory neurones that detect the stimulus
and the motor neurones the produce the operant
response (i.e. the cortical circuits that underlie the
association)
• One reinforcement system involves the release of
dopamine in the nucleus accumbens: When the brain
detects the presence of a reinforcer, dopaminergic
neurones in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) activate,
causing the release of dopamine in the nucleus
accumbens Note. Adapted from Figure 18.2, by Carlson & Birkett, 2017.

13
2. Learning
Reinforcement Systems
Image 8
Dopamine pathway

• Dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens has the

effect of reinforcing the behaviour
• Dopamine release is also triggered by cocaine,
amphetamines, natural reinforcers such as water and
food, sexual activity, gambling (in habitual gamblers),
video games (in habitual video game players), music,
receiving money...
• Carrying out one of these behaviours results in the release
of dopamine, and the association between the stimulus
and response becomes stronger
Note. Adapted from Figure 18.2, by Carlson & Birkett, 2017.

14
 3. Memory
Types of Memory
Image 9
• There are different types of memory, which some Memory stores

authors argue are different phases of the same process:

• Sensory memory: stimulation of the senses by a stimulus
is retained over very brief periods of time (fractions of a
second to a few seconds)
• Short-term memory: retains information over seconds
(up to around a minute and can be extended through
rehearsal), and is limited to a few items (whereas sensory
memory has a larger, but shorter capacity)
• Long-term memory (LTM): retains information over Note. Adapted from Figure 13.5, by
Carlson & Birkett, 2017
minutes, hours, days or permanently. LTMs tend to be
strengthened with increased retrieval.

15
3. Memory
Long-Term Memory
Image 10
Mouse
• There are two main types of LTM:
• Non-declarative (implicit) memory: memories we are
not conscious of, or the unconscious retrieval of
information from LTM e.g. riding a bike or speaking
• Declarative (explicit) memory: conscious retrieval of
events (episodic memory) and facts (semantic
memory)
• Episodic memories include contextual information:
when and under what conditions an episode occurred
• Semantic memories, however, do not necessarily
include contextual information Note. Adapted from Figure 13.6,
by Carlson & Birkett, 2017.

16
3. Memory
Neural Basis of Memory Formation

• Learning and memory formation involves changes in

synapses called long-term potentiation (LTP) Synapse
Synapse
• LTP occurs when a neurone receives a lot of stimulation
(either through repeated firing from one axon or from
multiple axons), it is left in a state in which some of its
synapses are potentiated: i.e. if they are stimulated
again it is likely that they will become stronger

Image 11 Note. Adapted from Figure 2.8,

Synaptic transmission by Kalat, 2019.

18
3. Memory
Neural Basis of Memory Formation
Image 12
Long-term potentiation

• E.g. before conditioning a tone to produce an eyeblink

response, the sensory neurones that send the tone information
do not produce a strong EPSP (via synapse T) in the motor
neurone that produces the eyeblink
• The sensory neurone that sends the puff of air signal does
produce a strong EPSP (via synapse P) in the eyeblink motor
neurone (this is beneficial given that an eyeblink reflex protects
the eye from potential damage)

Note. Adapted from Figure 13.28,

by Carlson & Birkett, 2017.

19
3. Memory
Neural Basis of Memory Formation
Image 12
Long-term potentiation

• Pairing the tone and puff of air several times causes the tone
and puff neurones to activate at the same time
• The Hebb rule: if a synapse (in this case T) becomes active
the same time a postsynaptic neurone fires (the eyeblink
neurone), then the synapse will strengthen (“neurones that
fire together, wire together”)
• Explained in more detail on the following slide...

Note. Adapted from Figure 13.28,

by Carlson & Birkett, 2017.

20
3. Memory
Neural Basis of Memory Formation
Image 12
Long-term potentiation

• In this example of presenting the puff of air and the tone at

the same time, a puff of air activates the synapse P, causing
the blink neurone to fire.
• The act of the blink neurone firing then strengthens any other
synapse it has that has just been active (i.e. the recently active
weak synapse T due to the tone stimulus)
• These means that repeatedly pairing the tone and puff
strengthens the synapse T, such that it can become strong
enough to stimulate the blink neurone on its own (in the
absence of activity in the synapse P). This is learning!
Note. Adapted from Figure 13.28,
by Carlson & Birkett, 2017.

21
Summary
• Learning is the process of acquiring new information and behaviours, and the long-term changes that occur in the
nervous system following learning are memories
• There are many types of learning, one of the most studied being stimulus-response (S-R) learning. There are two
main types of S-R learning: 1) classical conditioning (unimportant stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit some kind
of response) and 2) operant (instrumental) conditioning (when a reinforcing or punishing outcome follows a
specific behaviour).
• The neural basis of classical emotional conditioning involves synaptic changes in the lateral amygdala, whereas the
neural basis of operant conditioning involves neural connections being formed between the sensory circuits that
process the stimulus, and the motor circuits that produce the response, with the help of the hippocampus (and
when the operant response become automatic, the basal ganglia assume control of the learning operant
response). Operant responses may become reinforced via the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.
• Learning and memory formation involves changes in synapses called long-term potentiation (LTP): when a neurone
receives a lot of stimulation (either through repeated firing from one axon or from multiple axons), it is left in a
state in which some of its synapses are potentiated: i.e. if they are stimulated again it is more likely that they will
become stronger

22
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
• Carlson, N. R., & Birkett, M. A. (2017). Physiology of Behavior (12th ed.).
Pearson.
• Chandler, C. (2015). Psychobiology. Wiley.
• Kalat, J. W. (2019). Biological Psychology (13th ed.). Cengage.

23
 Dr Harry Moore
[email protected]

UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia

©
© UCAM
UCAM