Chapter 8

Trees
MAD101
Ly Anh Duong

[email protected]
 Table of Contents
1 Intro.& Def.

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 The Bernoulli family of mathematicians
1 Intro.& Def.

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 An organizational tree for a computer company
1 Intro.& Def.

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 Definition
1 Intro.& Def.

A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple circuits.

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 Definition
1 Intro.& Def.

A tree is a connected undirected graph with no simple circuits.

G1 , G2 are trees and G3 , G4 are not.

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 Theorem
1 Intro.& Def.

An undirected graph is a tree if and only if there is a unique simple path between
any two of its vertices.

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 Definition
1 Intro.& Def.
A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated as the root and
every edge is directed away from the root.

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 Some common concepts
1 Intro.& Def.

• g is root of tree
• j is parent of m and l
• m or l is a child of j
• m, l are siblings
• g is ancestor of m and m is descendant of
g
• i, k, l, m are leaves: nodes without children.
• g, h, j are Internal nodes: nodes have
children.
• n=i+l

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 Definition
1 Intro.& Def.

• A rooted tree is called an m-ary tree if every internal vertex has no more
than m children.
• The tree is called a full m-ary tree if every internal vertex has exactly m
children.
• An m-ary tree with m = 2 is called a binary tree.

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 Definition
1 Intro.& Def.
An ordered rooted tree is a rooted tree where the children of each internal
vertex are ordered (which is usually represented as in the graph).

f is the left child of d and g is the right child of d

(b): the left subtree of c and (c): the right subtree of c.
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 Properties of trees
1 Intro.& Def.
1. A tree with n vertices has n − 1 edges.
2. For a m-ary tree
n=i+l
3. For a full m-ary tree
n = mi + 1
• n are number of nodes,
• i are number of internal nodes,
• l are number of leaves.
Example.
a. How many leaves are there in a full 5-ary tree with 56 nodes. (l = 45)
b. How many vertices are there in a full ternary (3-ary) tree with 27 leaves.
(n = 40)
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 Definition
1 Intro.& Def.

• The level of a vertex v in a rooted

tree is the length of the unique path
from the root to this vertex.
• The level of the root is defined to
be zero.
• The height of a rooted tree is the
maximum of the levels of vertices.

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 Example.
1 Intro.& Def.

1. There are 10 nodes leaves in T1 and their level are 3&4.(h=4)

2. There are 7 nodes leaves in T2 and their level are 2,3 & 4.(h=4)
3. There are 10 nodes leaves in T3 and their level are 3.(h=3)
A rooted m-ary tree of height h is balanced if all leaves are at levels h or h − 1.
In example above, T1 , T3 are balanced and T2 is not.
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 Theorem
1 Intro.& Def.

There are at most mh leaves in an m-ary tree of height h.

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 Corollary
1 Intro.& Def.

If an m-ary tree of height h has l leaves, then h ≥ ⌈logm l⌉. If the m-ary tree is full
and balanced, then h = ⌈logm l⌉.

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 Table of Contents
2 Bi.S.Tr.

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 Definition
2 Bi.S.Tr.
• A binary search tree where each vertex is labeled with a key.
• The key of a vertex is both larger than the keys of all vertices in its left
subtree and smaller than the keys of all vertices in its right subtree.

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 Example.
2 Bi.S.Tr.

How about 6, 13, 4?

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 Example.
2 Bi.S.Tr.

Construct the Binary Search Trees for 8, 3, 11, 15, 2, 4, 14. How many comparisons
are required to locate number 6 in the search tree.

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 Example.
2 Bi.S.Tr.

Construct the Binary Search Trees for 8, 3, 11, 15, 2, 4, 14. How many comparisons
are required to locate number 6 in the search tree. =⇒ 4 comparisons are
required.

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 Alphabetical order
2 Bi.S.Tr.

Binary search tree for words: mango,

cherry, grape, apple, guava, watermelon,
satsuma, banana.

a < b < c...; ab < ac < ae...; abc < abd <
abe...

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 Algorithm: Locating an Item in or Adding an
Item to a Binary Search Tree
2 Bi.S.Tr.

Note: The algorithm returns the location of x or adds a new vertex with label x
into binary search tree. Complexity O(logn).
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 Table of Contents
3 Prefix code

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 Introduction
3 Prefix code
• Standard ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
character encoding: use 8 bits (1 byte) to store each character.
• For example, using the standard ASCII encoding, the 12- characters string
”no one knows” requires 12 ∗ 8 = 96 bits total.

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 Introduction
3 Prefix code

• A better code scheme

12 ∗ 3 = 36 bits total.
• A variable-length encoding

Use 32 bits total.

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 Introduction
3 Prefix code

Consider the codes

1. Use the following code a : 10 e : 01 t : 0110 n:1
Decode the message 01101
01101 mean ”ean”
01101 mean ”tn”
Hence, it is not a prefix code.
2. Use the following code a : 10 e : 01 t : 001 n : 11
Decode the message 1101001
1101001 mean ”net” only.
It is Prefix code

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 Definition
3 Prefix code

Prefix code is a type of codes which encodes the letters so that the bit string for
a letter never occurs as the first part of the bit string for another letter.

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 A binary tree with a prefix code
3 Prefix code

s : 1111
a : 10
n : 1110
e:0
So, ”sane” will be store as 11111011100 →
11 bits.
Hence, compression factor: 32/11 ∼ 3. Is
it best? How to construct a prefix code
that is using the fewest bits?

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 Huffman coding algorithm
3 Prefix code

• Find frequencies (probabilities) of each character in a text,

• Contructing a binary tree representing prefix codes of character. Notes:
• Sort by frequencies (probabilities) from small to large after each step,
• The larger weight sub-tree is on the left of the binary tree.
Example. Use Huffman coding algorithm to encode the word ”google”.

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 Solution.
3 Prefix code

• Counting frequencies of letter

e l g o
1/6 1/6 2/6 2/6
• P (l) = P (e) = 1/6

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 Example
3 Prefix code
• P (l) + P (e) = 2/6 = P (g)

• Final character

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 Example.
3 Prefix code

• 0:1
• g : 01
• l : 001
• e : 000
Hence, ”google” will be store as 011101001000 →
12 bits. Compare with ASCII, the copression factor
is 48/12 ∼ 4.

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 Example.
3 Prefix code

Use Huffman coding algorithm to encode the text ”maximum”. What is the
average number of bits?

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 Example.
3 Prefix code

Use Huffman coding algorithm to encode the text ”maximum”. What is the
average number of bits?
Ans: The average number of bits used to encode a symbol using this encoding is
15
≈ 2.14
7

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 Example
3 Prefix code

Use Huffman coding to encode the following symbols with the frequencies listed:
A: 0.08, B: 0.10, C: 0.12, D: 0.15, E: 0.20, F: 0.35. What is the average number of
bits used to encode a character?

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 Example
3 Prefix code

Use Huffman coding to encode the following symbols with the frequencies listed:
A: 0.08, B: 0.10, C: 0.12, D: 0.15, E: 0.20, F: 0.35. What is the average number of
bits used to encode a character?
Ans: The average number of bits used to encode a symbol using this encoding is

3 × 0.08 + 3 × 0.10 + 3 × 0.12 + 3 × 0.15 + 2 × 0.20 + 2 × 0.35 = 2.45

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 Huffman Coding Algorithm
3 Prefix code

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 Table of Contents
4 De.tree

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 A counterfeit coin problem
4 De.tree

Suppose there are seven coins, all with the

same weight, and a counterfeit coin that
weighs less than the others. How many
weighings are necessary using a balance
scale to determine which of the eight coins
is the counterfeit one?

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 Solution
4 De.tree

Thus, n = 8, we need 2 = ⌈log3 8⌉ = 2 weighings. How about n = 3, n = 9, n = 27?

→ In general, we need ⌈log3 n⌉ weighings to find the counterfeit coin.
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 Definition
4 De.tree

A rooted tree in which each internal vertex corresponds to a decision, with a

subtree at these vertices for each possible outcome of the decision, is called a
decision tree.

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 Example
4 De.tree
Form a decision tree of sorting three number a, b, c.

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 Theorem
4 De.tree

A sorting algorithm based on binary comparisons requires at least ⌈log n!⌉

comparisons.

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 Corollary
4 De.tree

The number of comparisons used by a sorting algorithm to sort n elements based

on binary comparisons is Ω(n log n).

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 Theorem
4 De.tree

The average number of comparisons used by a sorting algorithm to sort n elements

based on binary comparisons is Ω(n log n).

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 Table of Contents
5 Tree Traversal

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 Introduction
5 Tree Traversal

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 Tree Traversal
5 Tree Traversal

Traversal a tree: A way to visit all vertices of the rooted tree.

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 Traversal Algorithms
5 Tree Traversal

• At a time, a vertex is visited,

• Recursive algorithm,
• Bases on orders of tasks, traversals are classified into:
1. Pre-order traversal. N L R
2. In-order traversal. L N R
3. Post-order traversal. L R N
where,
• N: root node
• L: left subtree
• R: right subtree

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 Example.
5 Tree Traversal

Pre-order In-order Post-order

NLR LNR LRN
abcd bacd bcda
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 Pre-order traversal example.
5 Tree Traversal

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 Pre-order traversal example.
5 Tree Traversal

Pre-order traversal: a b e f c d g h
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 Pre-order traversal algorithm
5 Tree Traversal

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 In-order traversal example
5 Tree Traversal

In-order traversal: e b f a c g d h
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 In-order traversal algorithm
5 Tree Traversal

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 Post-order traversal example.
5 Tree Traversal

Post-order traversal: e f b c g h d a
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 Post-order traversal algorithm
5 Tree Traversal

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 Exercise
5 Tree Traversal

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 Solution.
5 Tree Traversal

1. Pre-order: 8 3 1 6 7 11 9 13 21
2. In-order: 1 3 6 7 8 9 11 13 21
3. Post-order: 1 7 6 3 9 21 13 11 8
In in-order, the sequences of numbers are sorted.
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 Table of Contents
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 Representing the expression
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

• +: addition
• −: subtraction
• ∗: multiplication
• /: division
• ↑: exponentiation
The expression can be represent by the binary trees with the rules:
• The internal vertices represent operations,
• The leaves represent the variables or numbers.

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 Example
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

What is the ordered rooted tree that represents the expression

((x + y) ↑ 2) + ((x − 4)/3)?

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 Example
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

What is the ordered rooted tree that represents the expression

(x + y)/(x + 3), (x + (y/x)) + 3, and x + (y/(x + 3))?

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 Definition
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

• We obtain prefix form of an expression when we traverse its rooted tree in

preorder + x y
• We obtain infix form of an expression when we traverse its rooted tree in
inorder x + y
• We obtain postfix form of an expression when we traverse its rooted tree in
postorder x y +
Note: Prefix form is called Polish notation and Postfix form is called reverse
Polish notation.

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 How to find prefix and postfix form from infix
form?
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

1. Draw expression tree.

2. Using Preorder traverse → Prefix form. Using Postorder traverse → Postfix
form.

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 Example
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

What is the prefix (infix, postfix) form of the following tree?

• Infix form ((x + y) ↑ 2) + ((x − 4)/3)
• Prefix form + ↑ +xy2/ − x43
• Postfix form xy + 2 ↑ x4 − 3/+

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 Evaluate a Prefix and Postfix form
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

1. Postfix form, work from left to right.

2. Prefix form, work from right to left.
Examples
1. + − ∗235/ ↑ 234
2. 723 ∗ −4 ↑ 93/+

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 Solution.
6 I.,P.&P.fix No.

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 Table of Contents
7 Spa.Trees

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 Introduction
7 Spa.Trees

The system of roads in Maine (USA)

• The only way the roads can be kept open in the winter is by frequently
plowing them,
• The highway department wants to plow the fewest roads so that there will
always be cleared roads connecting any two towns,
• How can this be done?
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 Introduction
7 Spa.Trees

At least five roads must be plowed to ensure that there is a path between any two
towns

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 Definition
7 Spa.Trees

Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of G is a subgraph of G that is a tree

containing every vertex of G.

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 Example
7 Spa.Trees

Find a spanning tree of this simple graph:

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 Solution.
7 Spa.Trees

• Removed {a, e} • Removed {c, g}

• Removed {e, f }

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 Solution.
7 Spa.Trees

The spanning tree above is not unique, there are four different spanning trees

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 Theorem
7 Spa.Trees

A simple graph is connected if and only if it has a spanning tree.

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 Depth-First Search (backtracking)
7 Spa.Trees

• Arbitrarily choose a vertex of the graph as the root. Form a path starting at
this vertex by successively adding vertices and edges, where each new edge is
incident with the last vertex in the path and a vertex not already in the path.
• Continue adding vertices and edges to this path as long as possible,
1. If the path goes through all vertices of the graph, the tree consisting of this path
is a spanning tree.
2. If the path does not go through all vertices, move back to the next to last vertex
in the path, forming new paths (adding new vertices and edges) that are as long
as possible until no more edges can be added → spanning tree.

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 Example
7 Spa.Trees

Find a spanning tree of this graph using Depth-First Search:

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 Solution.
7 Spa.Trees

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 Solution.
7 Spa.Trees

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 Tree edges and back edges
7 Spa.Trees

• Tree edges: highlight,

• Ly
Back edges: thinner black lines.Chapter 8 Trees
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 Example
7 Spa.Trees

Find a spanning tree of this graph using Depth-First Search:

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 Solution.
7 Spa.Trees

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 Depth-First Search Algorithm
7 Spa.Trees

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 Breadth-First Search
7 Spa.Trees

• Arbitrarily choose a root from the vertices of the graph, then add all edges
incident to this vertex (level 1),
• For each vertex at level 1, add each edge incident to this vertex to the tree as
long as it does not produce a simple circuit (level 2),
• The same procedure until all the vertices in the tree have been added.

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 Example
7 Spa.Trees

Find a spanning tree of this graph using Breadth-First Search:

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 Solution.
7 Spa.Trees

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 Example.
7 Spa.Trees

Find a spanning tree of this graph using Breadth-First Search:

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 Solution
7 Spa.Trees

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 Breadth-First Search Algorithm
7 Spa.Trees

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 Table of Contents
8 Min.Span.Trees

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 Introduction
8 Min.Span.Trees

A company plans to build a communications network connecting its five computer

centers.

• Which links should be made to ensure that there is a path between any two
computer centers so that the total cost of the network is minimized?
• We can solve this problem by finding a spanning tree so that the sum of the
weights of the edges of the tree is minimized. Such a spanning tree is called a
minimum spanning tree.
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 Definition
8 Min.Span.Trees

A minimum spanning tree in a connected weighted graph is a spanning tree

that has the smallest possible sum of weights of its edges.

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 Prim’s Algorithm
8 Min.Span.Trees

• Begin by choosing any edge with smallest weight, putting it into the spanning
tree.
• Successively add to the tree edges of minimum weight that are incident to a
vertex already in the tree, never forming a simple circuit with those edges
already in the tree.
• Stop when n − 1 edges have been added.

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 Example
8 Min.Span.Trees

Use Prim’s algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree in the graph

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 Solution.
8 Min.Span.Trees

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 Solution.
8 Min.Span.Trees

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 Solution.
8 Min.Span.Trees

=⇒ Total 24

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 Example.
8 Min.Span.Trees

Use Prim’s algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree in the graph

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 Solution.
8 Min.Span.Trees

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 Prim’s Algorithm
8 Min.Span.Trees

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 Kruskal’s Algorithm
8 Min.Span.Trees

• Choose an edge in the graph with minimum weight,

• Successively add edges with minimum weight that do not form a simple circuit
with those edges already chosen,
• Stop after n − 1 edges have been selected.

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 Example.
8 Min.Span.Trees

Use Kruskal’s algorithm to find a minimum spanning tree in the weighted graph

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 Solution.
8 Min.Span.Trees

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 Kruskal’s Algorithm
8 Min.Span.Trees

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 Note.
8 Min.Span.Trees

In Prim’s algorithm, edges of minimum weight that are incident to a vertex

already in the tree, and not forming a circuit, are chosen; whereas in Kruskal’s
algorithm edges of minimum weight that are not necessarily incident to a vertex
already in the tree, and that do not form a circuit, are chosen.

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 Table of Contents
9 Problems

▶ Intro.& Def.
▶ Bi.S.Tr.
▶ Prefix code
▶ De.tree
▶ Tree Traversal
▶ I.,P.&P.fix No.
▶ Spa.Trees
▶ Min.Span.Trees
▶ Problems
 Quizz
9 Problems

Ans: 2.5
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 Quizz
9 Problems

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 Quizz
9 Problems

Ans: 5, 3, 2, 4, 6, 7
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 Quizz
9 Problems

Ans: 200
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 Quizz
9 Problems

Ans:Ly(i)
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 Quizz
9 Problems

Ans:None of the others

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 Quizz
9 Problems

Ans: dabbce
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 Quizz
9 Problems

Ans: 3
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 Introduction to Trees
9 Problems

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 Introduction to Trees
9 Problems

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 Introduction to Trees
9 Problems

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 Applications of Trees
9 Problems

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 Applications of Trees
9 Problems

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 Applications of Trees
9 Problems

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 Applications of Trees
9 Problems

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 Tree Traversal
9 Problems

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 Tree Traversal
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 Tree Traversal
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 Tree Traversal
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 Spanning Trees
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 Spanning Trees
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 Spanning Trees
9 Problems

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 Spanning Trees
9 Problems

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 Spanning Trees
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 Spanning Trees
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 Spanning Trees
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 Spanning Trees
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 Spanning Trees
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 Minimum Spanning Trees
9 Problems

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 Minimum Spanning Trees
9 Problems

Ly Anh Duong Chapter 8 Trees [email protected] 133 / 135

 Minimum Spanning Trees
9 Problems

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 Q&A
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