INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

DEVELOPMENT
(IMADE)
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN
WORLD

CREATED BY: STEFHANY G. DAVID , LPT

SECTION 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

• III. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

OVERVIEW
OBJECTIVES
COURSE MATERIALS
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS
 OVERVIEW
MATHEMATICIANS HAVE ALWAYS UNDERSTOOD THAT PROBLEM-SOLVING IS
CENTRAL TO THEIR DISCIPLINE BECAUSE WITHOUT A PROBLEM THERE IS NO
MATHEMATICS. PROBLEM-SOLVING HAS PLAYED A CENTRAL ROLE IN THE THINKING OF
EDUCATIONAL THEORISTS EVER SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF PÓLYA’S BOOK “HOW TO
SOLVE IT,” IN 1945.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PROBLEM-SOLVING IN LEARNING MATHEMATICS COMES
FROM THE BELIEF THAT MATHEMATICS IS PRIMARILY ABOUT REASONING, NOT
MEMORIZATION. PROBLEM-SOLVING ALLOWS STUDENTS TO DEVELOP
UNDERSTANDING AND EXPLAIN THE PROCESSES USED TO ARRIVE AT SOLUTIONS,
RATHER THAN REMEMBERING AND APPLYING A SET OF PROCEDURES. IT IS THROUGH
PROBLEM-SOLVING THAT STUDENTS DEVELOP A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS, BECOME MORE ENGAGED, AND APPRECIATE THE
RELEVANCE AND USEFULNESS OF MATHEMATICS (WU AND ZHANG 2006).
OBJECTIVES
• AFTER SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF THIS MODULE, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE
TO:
• USE DIFFERENT TYPES OF REASONING TO JUSTIFY STATEMENTS AND
ARGUMENTS MADE ABOUT MATHEMATICS AND MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
• WRITE CLEAR AND LOGICAL PROOFS
• SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING PATTERNS AND RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS
FOLLOWING POLYA’S FOUR STEPS
• ORGANIZE ONE’S METHOD AND APPROACHES FOR PROVING AND
SOLVING PROBLEMS
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
MATHEMATICS IS NOT JUST ABOUT NUMBERS, MUCH OF IT IS PROBLEM SOLVING AND
REASONING
1.1PROBLEM
GENERALLY, IT IS A SITUATION YOU WANT TO CHANGE. IT REQUIRES
RESOLUTION AND FOR WHICH THE PATH OF THE ANSWER IS NOT IMMEDIATELY KNOWN. THERE
IS AN OBSTACLE THAT PREVENTS ONE FROM SETTING A CLEAR PATH TO ANSWER.
1.2 PROBLEM SOLVING
HAS BEEN DEFINED AS HIGHER –ORDER COGNITIVE PROCESS THAT REQUIRES
THE MODULATION AND CONTROL OF MORE ROUTINE OR FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS
(GOLDSTEIN & LEVIN ,1987)
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.3 MATHEMATICAL REASONING
REFERS TO THE ABILITY OF A PERSON TO ANALYZE PROBLEM SITUATIONS AND CONSTRUCT
LOGICAL ARGUMENTS TO JUSTIFY HIS PROCESS OR HYPOTHESIS, TO CREATE BOTH CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS AND
CONNECTIONS , IN ORDER FOR HIM TO BE ABLE TO PROCESS AVAILABLE INFORMATION.
ACTIVITY: EISTEIN’S RIDDLE DAN VAN DER VIEREN
1.4 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
1.4.1 INDUCTIVE (SPECIFIC TO GENERAL)
-LOGICALLY TRUE
-MAY OR MAY NOT BE REALISTICALLY TRUE
EX. STATEMENT 1.MANGO IS A FRUIT. (SPECIFIC STATEMENT)
STATEMENT 2. THE BOX IS FULL OF FRUITS. (SPECIFIC STATEMENT)
CONCLUSION: THE BOX IS FULL OF MANGOES. (GENERAL CONCLUSION)
*LOGICALLY TRUE BUT REALISTICALLY MAY OR MAY NOT BE TRUE
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.4.2 DEDUCTIVE ( GENERAL TO SPECIFIC )
-LOGICALLY TRUE
-REALISTICALLY TRUE
EX. STATEMENT 1. ALL MANGOES ARE FRUITS. (GENERAL STATEMENT)
STATEMENT 2. ALL FRUITS HAVE SEEDS. (GENERAL STATEMENT )
CONCLUSION : MANGOES HAVE SEEDS. ( SPECIFIC CONCLUSION)
*LOGICALLY TRUE AND REALISTICALLY TRUE
1.5 INTUITION ,PROOF AND CERTAINTY
1.5.1INTUITION
IS THE ABILITY TO ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE WITH OUT PROOF , EVIDENCE OR
CONSCIOUS REASONING OR WITHOUT UNDERSTANDING HOW THE KNOWLEDGE WAS ACQUIRED.
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.5.1 INTUITION
ACCORDING TO SYLVIA CLARE, IT IS A SENSE OF KNOWING HOW TO ACT
SPONTANEOUSLY WITHOUT NEEDING TO KNOW WHY.
IT IS AN APPROACH WHERE MATHEMATICS IS CONSIDERED TO BE PURELY THE
RESULT OF THE CONSTRUCTIVE MENTAL ACTIVITY OF HUMAN
1.5.2 PROOF
IS A MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT THAT IS PROVEN TO BE TRUE.
1.5.2.1 THREE BASIC PROOF TECHNIQUES USED IN MATH
A. DIRECT PROOF/INDIRECT PROOF
B. PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
C. PROOF BY INDUCTIVE
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.5.3 CERTAINTY
IT IS A PERFECT KNOWLEDGE THAT HAS TOTAL SECURITY FROM ERROR
,THE MENTAL STATE OF BEING WITHOUT DOUBT
THERE ARE THREE LINES OF INQUIRY TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEM OF CERTAINTY IN MATH.
1.LOOK AT THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS
2.SKETCH THE INDIVIDUAL COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS
3. EXAMINE THE FOUNDATION OF CERTAINTY FOR MATHEMATICS AND INVESTIGATE ITS
STRENGTHS AND DEFICIENCIES
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
IN 1945 GEORGE POLYA PUBLISHED THE BOOK HOW TO SOLVE IT WHICH
QUICKLY BECAME HIS MOST PRIZED PUBLICATION. IT SOLD OVER ONE MILLION COPIES
AND HAS BEEN TRANSLATED INTO 17 LANGUAGES. IN THIS BOOK HE IDENTIFIES FOUR
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PROBLEM SOLVING.
POLYA’S FIRST PRINCIPLE:
UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
THIS SEEMS SO OBVIOUS THAT IT IS OFTEN NOT EVEN MENTIONED, YET STUDENTS ARE
OFTEN STYMIED IN THEIR EFFORTS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS SIMPLY BECAUSE THEY DON’T
UNDERSTAND IT FULLY, OR EVEN IN PART.
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
POLYA TAUGHT TEACHERS TO ASK STUDENTS QUESTIONS SUCH AS:
• DO YOU UNDERSTAND ALL THE WORDS USED IN STATING THE PROBLEM?
• WHAT ARE YOU ASKED TO FIND OR SHOW?
• CAN YOU RESTATE THE PROBLEM IN YOUR OWN WORDS?
• CAN YOU THINK OF A PICTURE OR DIAGRAM THAT MIGHT HELP YOU UNDERSTAND
THE PROBLEM?
• IS THERE ENOUGH INFORMATION TO ENABLE YOU TO FIND A SOLUTION?
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
POLYA’S SECOND PRINCIPLE:
DEVISE A PLAN
POLYA MENTIONS THAT THERE ARE MANY REASONABLE WAYS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS.
THE SKILL
AT CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE STRATEGY IS BEST LEARNED BY SOLVING MANY
PROBLEMS. YOU WILL FIND CHOOSING A STRATEGY INCREASINGLY EASY. A PARTIAL
LIST OF STRATEGIES IS INCLUDED:
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
GUESS AND CHECK • LOOK FOR A PATTERN
• MAKE AN ORDERLY LIST • DRAW A PICTURE
• ELIMINATE POSSIBILITIES • SOLVE A SIMPLER PROBLEM
• USE SYMMETRY • USE A MODEL
• CONSIDER SPECIAL CASES • WORK BACKWARDS
• USE DIRECT REASONING • USE A FORMULA
• SOLVE AN EQUATION • BE INGENIOUS
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
POLYA’S THIRD PRINCIPLE:
CARRY OUT THE PLAN
THIS STEP IS USUALLY EASIER THAN DEVISING THE PLAN. IN GENERAL, ALL YOU NEED IS
CARE AND PATIENCE, GIVEN THAT YOU HAVE THE NECESSARY SKILLS. PERSIST WITH THE
PLAN THAT YOU HAVE CHOSEN. IF IT CONTINUES NOT TO WORK DISCARD IT AND
CHOOSE ANOTHER. DON’T BE MISLED, THIS IS HOW MATHEMATICS IS DONE, EVEN BY
PROFESSIONALS.
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.6 POLYA’S STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
POLYA’S FOURTH PRINCIPLE: LOOK BACK
POLYA MENTIONS THAT MUCH CAN BE GAINED BY TAKING THE TIME TO REFLECT AND
LOOK BACK AT WHAT YOU HAVE DONE, WHAT WORKED, AND WHAT DIDN’T. DOING
THIS WILL ENABLE YOU TO PREDICT WHAT STRATEGY TO USE TO SOLVE FUTURE
PROBLEMS.
1.7 MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING PATTERNS
1.7.1 SEQUENCE
COURSE MATERIALS
• I. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
1.8 RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS USING MATHEMATICS
1.8.1 SUDOKU 1.8.2 MAGIC SQUARE 1.8.3 KENKEN PUZZLE
COURSE OUTLINE

REFERENCES FOR READING REFERENCES FOR VIDEO

• MATHEMATICAL EXCURSIONS(CH. 1) BY R. • HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=
AUFMANN ET AL; WHAT IS MATHEMATICS K_EO2RJ1R2Y&T=15S
REALLY? (CH.4 & 5 ) BY R. HERSH • HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=
SFQEF36HJ4U
ACTIVITIES /ASSESSMENTS
• INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITIES:
• 1. SOLVE EISTEIN’S RIDDLE DAN VAN DER VIEREN
• 2.. EXERCISES ABOUT DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
• 3. MAKE YOUR OWN SAMPLE OF SUDOKU, MAGIC SQUARE AND KENKEN PUZZLE
• ASSESSMENT
• ONLINE QUIZ