POM- Somashekar sir

Tuesday, June 22, 2021 3:58 PM

Syllabus :
PART 1: Teaching of proof (theorems) Extra reading:
• Meaning and nature of proof https://homepages.warwick.ac.uk/staff/David.Tall/pdfs/dot1989a-nature-proof-
mt.pdf - General idea
• Kinds of proof - direct, proof by mathematical induction,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_proof#Nature_and_purpose - General
proof by contradiction, proof by contrapositive, proof by
idea but mainly for nature of proof
cases, proof by counter examples
https://www.math.fsu.edu/~pkirby/mad2104/SlideShow/s3_2.pdf - Types of
• Planning and teaching of various theorems in proofs with examples.
mathematics

See the extra reading or first video sent by sir ↓

Theorem : (Sir has taught about proof of theorems not proof in general)
Logical valid conclusion drawn from a set of premises, axioms and already established theorems of mathematics system.

Variants of Mathematical Theorem :

A theorem p => q can have 3 variants:
1. Converse of a theorem q => p
2. Inverse of a theorem (~p) => (~q)
3. Contrapositive of a theorem (~q) => (~p)

Proof : Direct Mathematical induction

Cases

Indirect Contradiction

Contrapositive

Counter-example

Direct method :
Claim of arguments which leads directly from what is given or assumed, with the help of axioms, definitions, or already prove d theorems to
what is to be proved using rules of interference.

○ Mathematical Induction :
Let N= {1,2,3,….} be a set of natural numbers and P(n) be a mathematical statement involving the natural number n belonging to N
such that:
(i) P(1) is true, i.e., P(n) if true for n = 1.
(ii) P(n+1) is true whenever P(n) id true, i.e., P(n) is true implies P(n+1) is true.
Then P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

○ Proof by cases or exhaustion:

Consists of examining every possible case of the hypothesis.

Indirect method :
It's the proof of a proposition equivalent to that which we wish to prove.

○ Proof by contradiction :
It is a form of proof that establishes the truth or the validity of a proposition, by showing that assuming the proposition to be false
leads to a contradiction.

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○ Proof by contrapositive :
Instead of proving the condition p => q, we prove its equivalent (~q) => (~p).

○ Proof by counter examples :

We find an example to falsify the generalization. That example used to disprove the generalization is called the counter example.

Methods of teaching-learning theorems :

a) Analytic method :
▫ Analytic - derived from 'Analysis' - means to break or resolve a thing into its constituent element.
▫ Method includes breaking up the unknown problem into simpler parts which can be recombined to find the solution.
▫ "Unknown to known".
▫ Merits :
- Logical, leaves no doubt as each step is justified.
- Develops thinking and reasoning power among the students.
- Students gain confidence and understanding.
- Facilitates clear understanding, as we discover facts.
- Develops the spirit of enquiry and discovery among the students.
▫ Demerits :
- Lengthy method and time consuming.
- Difficult to acquire efficiency and speed.
- Not applicable to all topics.
- Not suitable for students with weak conceptual knowledge.
- Information is not presented in a well-organized manner.

b) Synthetic method :
▫ Synthetic - derived from 'Synthesis' - means to combine together.
▫ Method includes collecting and combining various facts to find out unknown result.
▫ "Known to unknown".
▫ Merits :
- Short and precise method.
- Facilitates speed and efficiency.
- Suits the needs of majority of the students.
- Can be applied to a majority of topics in mathematics.
- Accuracy is developed.
▫ Demerits :
- Teacher-centered method, students are passive listeners.
- Leaves many doubts in students mind without offering explanation.
- Students rely on rote memory.
- No opportunity to develop the skills of thinking and reasoning, as understanding is hampered.
- Possibility of forgetting.

Syllabus :
PART 2: Problem solving
• Definition of problem, problem-solving. Extra reading:
http://psychologicalresources.blogspot.com/2014/12/problems-solving.html - General idea
• Meaning and nature of problem solving.
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/20728/1/Unit-1.pdf - General idea
• Strategies of problem solving - means-end problem
https://math.berkeley.edu/~gmelvin/polya.pdf - Polya's problem solving method
solving, backtracking, backward movement, heuristics. https://www.opepp.org/lesson/hsdm-unit7-tool-for-field/ - Polya's problem solving method
• Polya's problem solving steps. https://nzmaths.co.nz/problem-solving-strategies - Explanation for strategies
• Solving various mathematical problems.

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See video two sent by sir for any clarification ↓

Problem :
○ A problem as "a situation in which a person wants [emphasis mine] something and does not know immediately what to do to get it" -
Reys, Lindquist, Lambdin, Smith and Suydam (2004) it is situations that determine the problematic conditions.
The context in which we involve the learner and the way in which he/she visualize, attempt and solve the problem - entire process is
problem- emphasize the individuals self-concepts

○ The "difficulty should be an intellectual impasse rather than a computational one"- Schoenfeld (1985)
The situation given must be difficult - solution should not be known by straight computation- should be an intellectual challenge for
the learners .Problem - learner - analyze, reflect, connect ideas learnt, apply them to find solution.

Mathematical task :
A mathematical task is defined to be a problem to a student if he or she is unable to proceed directly to a solution. Whether the student is
interested to solve it or actually makes an attempt on it will not affect the teacher's viewpoint that this is a problem to the student.
▫ Intrinsic motivation must be there within the learner for him/her to attempt that problem.
▫ If not teacher provide extrinsic motivation/ prompts/ incentive as motivational factors.
▫ Problem- the level of difficulty/ease - depends on cognitive abilities of individual learners

Three necessary conditions for a situation to be a problem for a particular individual :

- Henderson's and Pingry's (1953)
"1. The individual has a clearly defined goal of which he is consciously aware and whose attainment he desires.
Students should be able to read the problem, analyze what is given/not given, identify goal- what is not given- analytical abilities are
important here.
2. Blocking of the path toward the goal occurs, and the individual's fixed patterns of behavior or habitual responses are not sufficient for
removing the block.
When a problem is given- there must be obstacles for the learner- have strategies & thinking process- explore, apply and only then arrive
at an answer.
If the obstacles are not posed well- then the learner arrive at the solution easily- develop habitual responses or fixed patterns of
behavior.
3. Deliberation takes place. The individual becomes aware of the problem, defines it more or less clearly, identifies various possible hypotheses
(solutions), and tests these for feasibility."
Relate to similar problems, relate different mathematical ideas.
Learner- find given, connect ideas, verify formulas/strategies, apply those and arrive at solution- cognitively obtain the solution.

Problem-solving :
○ "Problem-solving is the process of confronting a novel situation, formulating connections between given acts, identifying the goal of the
problem, and exploring possible strategies for reaching the goal." (Szetela & Nicol, 1992)
These steps happen one after another in problem solving.
○ It requires the problem-solver to coordinate "previous experience, knowledge, and intuition" (Schoenfeld, 1989) in order to solve problems
where no direct procedures or paths to the solution have been provided.
Require analytical, synthetic abilities, making connections and decisions to use suitable strategies/procedure/formula, apply them-
computation and simplification, arrive at solution/proof.

Criteria for Effective Mathematics Problems :

▫ Solution is not immediately obvious.
▫ Provides a learning situation related to a key concept specific curriculum expectations.
▫ Promotes more than one solution and strategy as per grade
Should not be mechanical/rigid - encourage students to solve independently and in various methods/strategies- flexibility and
creativity of students to be encouraged.
▫ Situation requires decision making above and beyond choosing a mathematical operation.
▫ Solution time is reasonable
Develop fast solving - speed and accuracy.

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 Develop fast solving - speed and accuracy.
▫ Encourages collaboration in seeking solutions.

Mathematical process expectations are :

○ Problem solving
○ Reasoning and proving
○ Reflecting- try to see which formula works better/ alternate methods
○ Selecting tools and computational strategies
○ Connecting
○ Representing
○ Communicating

Problems can be of form :

○ Word problem
○ Numerical problem
○ Using figures
○ As puzzle

Develop problem solving in students :

○ Factors that teacher should project in class: learners - should be able to solve varieties of problematic situations- how mathematical
knowledge helps to solve a problem efficiently.
○ The concepts/ mathematical ideas that we teach - develop how students visualize in real context - link concepts beyond class into life
○ Graded problems - questions in (textbook) exercise - increasing level of difficulty as we proceed down through the questions - simple to
complex - by the end student must be able to make connections and solve problem individually - teacher should check the validity of the
problem solved.

See video three sent by sir for any clarification ↓

Polya's Problem-Solving Process :

A classic method to solve problems.
A four step method given by George Polya to solve all kinds of problems.
This method is simple and generalizes well.
Can be applicable not only in mathematics but all kinds of problem solving.

The four steps are:

1. Understand the Problem
Communicate - talk to understand the problem.
Make a meaning out of the question - make it into a figural form/other form - shows how much we comprehend the problem -
express the ideas to demonstrate the essential components given and what is to be found
2. Make a Plan
Communicate - discuss ideas with others to clarify strategies.
Plan what mathematical ideas we are able to put to action.
Planning - recalling formula/ identity/ definition/ value/ axioms/ theorems.
3. Carry Out the Plan
Communicate - record your thinking using manipulatives, pictures, words, numbers, and symbols.
Execute the planned strategy
4. Look Back
Communicate - verify, summarize/ generalize, validate, and explain.
Before finalizing the answer, we need to verify the answer obtained with the given conditions of the problem.
This ensures we have got the right solution.

The communication at different levels are different - the purpose of communication is different - we must help students develop all these
levels of communication and also mathematical language.

Problem solving strategies :

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Problem solving strategies :
Depending on the problems posed - word/ numerical/ figure/ ..., we have to adopt different strategies to solve them.

1. Means-ends Analysis:
▫ Means - the way in which we do something
▫ Ends - the solution
▫ When a problem is given, figure out known and unknown - explore different ways in which we can reach from known to unknown- find the
simplest/ easiest/ quickest among them.
▫ Choose the strategy by looking at the end point.

2. Back tracking
▫ Find the solution to the problem but it is wrong. We know the formula used and the process is correct.
▫ To check where it is wrong, we check each step backward, i.e., beginning from the final step up to first step.

3. Moving backward
▫ Problem solving starts with the goal itself - make supportive arguments from the given solution itself - with this argumentation, try to
arrive at the problem situation.
(Like converse of a theorem)

4. Heuristic
▫ Discovery/ curiosity/ inquisitive nature to find the answer.
▫ All the above methods - has an element of heuristic nature.

Other ways to solve a problem:

○ Break into smaller problems
○ Change your point of view
○ Classify
○ Combine strategies
○ Do a simulation
○ Dramatize the situation
○ Draw a diagram
○ Draw a picture
○ Eliminate possibilities
○ Guess and test (or guess and check)
○ Identify sub-goals
○ Logical Reasoning
○ Look for a formula
○ Look for a pattern
○ Make a chart
○ Make a graph
○ Make a list
○ Make a scale drawing
○ Make a table
○ Solve a related problem
○ Solve a simpler problem
○ Solve an equivalent problem
○ Take a sample
○ Use a model
○ Use a variable
○ Use cases
○ Use coordinates
○ Use dimensional analysis
○ Use direct reasoning
Use examples

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 ○ Use examples
○ Use indirect reasoning
○ Use objects
○ Use properties of numbers
○ Use symmetry
○ Work backwards
○ Write an equation
While teaching students, to develop problem solving skills, we have to deliberately highlight the method used, why it is bein g used and
how it helps to arrive at an answer - and encourage students to choose their own strategy according to their abilities.

"Ten-Commandments for Teachers" :

-Polya
1. Be interested in your subject
2. Know your subject
3. Try to read the faces of your students; try to see their expectations and difficulties; put yourself in their place.
4. Realize that the best way to learn anything is to discover it by yourself.
5. Give your students not only information, but also know-how, mental attitudes, and the habit of methodical work.
6. Let them learn guessing.
7. Let them learn proving.
8. Look out for such features of the problem at hand as may be useful in solving problems to come try to disclose the general pattern that
lies behind the present concrete situation.
9. Do not give away your whole secret at once- let the students guess before you tell it - let them find out by themselves as such as if
feasible.
10. Suggest it; do not force it down their throats.

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