CHAPTER 3: TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS

Uninterrupted flow - Flow occurring at long sections of road where vehicles are not required to stop by
any cause external to the traffic stream

Major Traffic Variables:

Uninterrupted flow can be described using any of the following traffic variables:
A. Flow rate or volume
B. Speed
C. Density or concentration

Interrupted flow - flow occurring at intersections or driveways where vehicles are required to stop by any
cause outside the traffic stream - such as traffic signs (STOP or YIELD), traffic signal lights, etc.

Flow Rate - is defined as the number of vehicles passing a point during a specified period of time. It is
often referred to as volume when measured over an hour.

Speed - is defined as rate of motion in distance per unit time. When describing traffic stream, two types
of speed are used: time mean speed and space mean speed.

Time mean speed (TMS) - Also called spot speed, time mean speed is simply the arithmetic mean of the
speeds of vehicles passing a point within a given interval of time.

-Average speed of all vehicles moving over a section of the highways.

Space mean speed - is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic stream within a given section of
road. It is the harmonic mean of the speed of vehicles passing through the highway at a set interval.

-Average of all vehicles passing a point on a highway.

Density - is defined as the number of vehicles in a given length of road at an instant point in time.

Time headway - is defined as the time interval between passage of consecutive vehicles at a specified
point on the road with a unit of time per vehicles.

Spacing - is the distance between two vehicles measure from the front bumper of a vehicle to that of
another.

Time occupancy - It is defined as the total time of a detector is occupied divided by the total time of
observation.

Capacity - is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can reasonably be expected
to transverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing
roadway, traffic, and control conditions.

Level of service (LOS) - is a qualitative description of how a certain facility is performing.

Queue – a line/sequence of people or vehicles waiting for their turn to be attended to or to proceed.
Queuing Theory – determines the measure of waiting lines which can be used to design services. It
provides ways of assessing the impact of activities by knowing the magnitude of delay and the extent of
queue propagated.
Factors affecting QT:
1. Demand population/arrived pattern
2. Queue discipline
3. Service mechanism – How long to provide the service.
Input - is normally characterized by some form of arrival pattern usually given by its arrival distribution.
Output - generally depends on the queue discipline and the service mechanism at the service station.
The most common type of queue disciplines the so-called FIFO or first-in first-out, i.e., the first one that
arrives at the service station gets served first and therefore the first to leave the system as well. (Another
type of queue discipline, which has limited application to traffic flow, is the so-called LIFO or last-in first-
out.
Service mechanism - refers to the manner customers are served at the station.
Kendall’s notation - is popularly used to describe a queuing system.
Stochastic/Markov (M) - is used for random processes.
-Randomized distribution based of Poisson’s distribution curve.
Deterministic (D) - is used for processes that are characterized by regular or constant arrivals or departures.
Shock wave - is simply the motion or propagation of a change in density and flow.

CHAPTER 4: TRAFFIC STUDIES

Traffic volume - is the most basic data needed for any traffic studies. Volume studies are conducted to
obtain factual information on the number of vehicles and/or persons that pass at a specified point on the
highway system.
Types of Volume
a. Annual traffic is used for determining annual travel, estimating expected highway user revenue,
computing accident rates.
b. Annual average daily traffic (AADT) is used for measuring the present demand for service by
the road, programming capital improvements.
c. Hourly traffic is used for evaluating capacity deficiencies, geometric design or improvement
of streets and intersections.
d. Short-term count is used to estimate maximum flow rate and determine the characteristics of
peak hour volumes.
Tapes of Data Collected
a. Mid-block counts are used for preparing traffic flow maps and determining trends.
b. Directional counts are used for determining directional distribution for capacity analysis,
signal timing, justifying traffic control, etc.
 c. Turning movement or intersection counts are used for signal timing, designing or improving
geometry of intersection, planning turning prohibition, analyzing high accident intersections.
d. Classification counts are used for determining modal split, estimating effects of heavy
vehicles on capacity, determining correction factors for automatic counts.
e. Cordon counts are used to determine the number of vehicles and/or persons entering and
leaving an enclosed area.
f. Screen line counts are classified counts taken at some points along a line that bisects a given
area.

Time of Study
The time and duration of a traffic volume study depends on the type and application of the data to be
gathered. Some of the typical counts are as follows:

a. Twenty-four-hour counts from midnight to midnight

b. Sixteen-hour counts from 6 AM to 10 PM to represent most of daily flow, including evening
traffic
c. Twelve-hour counts from 6 AM to 6 PM to cover most of daytime traffic
d. Peak period counts from 7 AM to 9 AM, 5 PM to 7 PM, or other time intervals corresponding
to very high level of traffic volume
e. Short counts of about one hour or less with intervals of 5-15 minutes to analyze characteristics
of peak hours.

Abnormal conditions are usually avoided unless the purpose is to obtain information concerning those
conditions. These would include

a. special occasions such as public holidays or fiestas

b. days with abnormal weather conditions
c. strikes or demonstrations.

Methods
A. By tallying
This is the simplest and sometimes most practical in the absence of any mechanical or automatic
counting device. Tally sheets are used to record the number of vehicles.

B. Using manual counters

A manual counter is a mechanical device useful when volume is high. Counters may he of
single or multiple type.

C. Using automatic counters

When traffic count of very long duration is required, automatic counters through the use of
detectors may be used. The simplest type of an automatic counter is a pneumatic tube laid
transversely across the road. A counter is actuated when tires pass over the tube. More
sophisticated detectors make use of ultrasonic waves or inductance loops.
 D. Using video cameras
Video cameras may be used to take footage of the traffic flow. Counts may then be carried out later
through either tally or manual method while watching the video.

Presentation of Traffic Volumes

a. Variations
b. Flow maps
c. Intersection diagram

The annual average daily traffic or AADT has been a common measure of daily traffic at a given
location. At a given point along a particular highway, it is estimated as the total volume counted
over one year divided by the number of days in the year, or AADT = sum of all vehicles passing
the site in a year / 365

Another measure of daily traffic is the average daily traffic or ADT. This is obtained by
conducting traffic volume counts over a number of days at least 2 days and less than 365 days.

Spot speed studies:

Time of study - the period during which speeds are measured depends on the purpose of the study.

Methods

a. Radar speed meter - When such instrument is available, the use of radar is very
convenient way of conducting spot speed studies. The radar is positioned at the edge
of the roadway at an angle of 15 degrees with the centreline and is directed toward the
incoming vehicles.
b. Manual method - A very useful and less expensive way of conducting spot speed
studies is called the “trap length” method. In this method, two lines, 30-50 m apart,
are drawn transversely on the pavement. A stopwatch is then used to measure the
“travel time” of the vehicle within the “trap”. The length of the trap is divided by the
travel time estimate the speed.

Travel time and delay studies:

Travel time studies - normally give information on the performance of a particular roadway.

Methods

a. Test car technique - The method makes use of a test vehicle that is driven over the
road section under study.
b. Licensed plate method - The method basically consists of observing and recording
license plates of vehicles and time of arrivals at two points or more on the road where
the vehicles are expected to pass.
 c. Moving observer method - One of the most common survey methods for obtaining
information on traffic volume. speed, and density of a given section of road. The
survey is very easy to conduct------one observer counts the number of vehicles moving
in the opposite direction; another observer counts the number of vehicles that pass
them as well as the number of vehicles that they pass; the timer notes down the time
it takes to traverse the section.

CHAPTER 7: ROAD SAFETY AND TRAFFIC ACCIDENT ANALYSIS

Accident per population - One measure of accident rate is per 100,000 population.
Accident per registered vehicles - Another measure of accident rate is per 10,000 registered vehicles.

The UN Organization (Geneva) defines traffic death as that which occurs within thirty days of the event,
i.e., a road accident victim who died within thirty days of the incident is still considered a casually of the
accident. The Philippines defines fatality as “death at the scene”. Serious injury and slight injury are
defined based on the extent of injury sustained and the length of time required by the injured to recover.
However, there is no exact definition of the seriousness of the injury. Property damage-only accidents
involve vehicles colliding with publicity or privately owned structures, equipment, and facilities located by
the road. It also includes collision of vehicles with other vehicles without causing physical injury to the
driver, passenger, or any pedestrian.

Three key socioeconomic indicators are used to assess a country’s road safety condition:
A. Population
B. Gross domestic product (GDP)
C. Vehicle registration

It is very alarming that most traffic accidents occurred during night time. There may be other contributing
factors, but the major ones could be:
a. inadequacy of street lightning
b. lack of warning devices
c. complete disregard of traffic signals during late night or early morning.

3 methods in identifying blackspots or hazardous locations:

1. Classic statical method - The method assumes that the number of accidents at locations of interest
follows a standard normal probability distribution.
2. Rate quality control method - This is a variation of the classic statistical method. Instead of a
normal distribution, the method assumes that the number of accidents at a set of locations follows
a Poisson distribution.
3. Setting benchmark method - The third method requires arranging all accidents involving
casualties from highest to lowest.
Agencies:
1. IRSC (Interagency Road Safety Committee)
2. DOTC (Department of Transportation and Communication) - the primary government agency
dealing with road transport industry, particularly the planning and policy aspects.
3. DECS (Department of Education, Culture and Sports)
4. DND (Department of National Defense)
5. DOH (Department of Health) - is responsible for ensuring every Filipino’s access to basic public
health services through the provision of quality health care and regulation of providers of health
goods and services.
6. DILG (Department of the Interior and Local Government)
7. SOPI (Safety Organization of the Philippines Inc.) - is a private organization operated by donations
from private companies as well as from government agencies.
8. NRSC (National Road Safety Committee) - is supposed to ensure the timely and responsive
implementation of policies and programs on transportation safety.
9. LTO (Land Transportation Office) - is in charge of driver licensing, registration of motor vehicles,
and the enforcement of transportation and traffic laws.
10. LTFRB (Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board) - is a quasi-judicial agency
mandated to rationalize, regulate and supervise motorized land-based public transport service.
11. AAP (Automobile Association Philippines) - formerly the Philippine Motor Association, is a
private organization that has dedicated itself to the promotion of motoring and to the service of the
Philippine motorists for more than half a century.
- This organization also serves the needs of Philippine motorists worldwide through its affiliation
with the two most distinguished motoring federations in the world: the Alliance Internationale de
Tourisme and the Federation Internationale de l’Automobile.

RA 8794, 2000 - Imposing a Motor Vehicle User’s Fee on Owners of All Types of Motor Vehicles

Section 7 of RA 8794 - 7.5 percent of all monies collected under this Act shall be allotted to and placed in
the special road safety fund under the DPWH.

Seat Belt Law (RA 8750), 2000 - requires installation of and buckling up of seatbelts on front seats only
of private vehicles.

RA 7924 - Banning the Use of Cellular Phones and Handset Radios while Operating or Driving a Motor
Vehicle

ROAD SAFETY ISSUES

1. Legislative
2. Institutional
3. Technical
4. Education and campaigns
5. Sociocultural
Approaches to Estimating Cost of Accidents:

a. Gross output/ human capital method

b. Life insurance method
c. Court award method
d. Implicit public sector valuation method
e. Net Output Method
f. Value of risk change or willingness-to-pay method
To date, the two commonly accepted methods to estimate the economic cost of accidents are as follows:

a. Gross output or human capital method. This approach focuses on the economic
consequences of a road accident, and usually also includes a notional sum that reflects the pain,
grief, and suffering incurred by the persons involved and their family. It is based on the idea
that the value to society of avoiding a death or injury is related to the potentially lost economic
output and resources.
b. Willingness-to-pay method. This is based on the amount that a person is willing to pay to avid
an accident. This is a very subjective measure that reflects individual preferences, values, and
perceptions of risk. It is extremely difficult to reliably estimate and will vary significantly from
person to person and from place to place.
CHAPTER 8: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL DEMAND FORECASTING

THE FOUR-STEP FORECASTING MODEL

a. Trip generation and attraction
b. Trip distribution
c. Modal split
d. Traffic assignment
METHODS FOR ESTIMATING TRIP GENERATION AND ATTRACTION

a. Growth rate method - The number of trips is assumed to be influenced by several variables
like population, car ownership, or income.
b. Category analysis - The number of cars is considered the main variable in determining trip
making in a certain area.
c. Regression model
TRIP DISTRIBUTION
1. Present pattern method - The principle behind this method is that trip distribution is
proportional to growth rate of trip generation and that trip distribution is proportional to the relative
growth rate of trip attraction to trip production.
a. Uniform factor method
b. Average factor method
c. Detroit method
d. Fratar method

2. Model method - A number of model methods are patterned after Newton’s law of
gravitation. Hence, these are termed gravity models.
a. Basic type
b. Bureau of public roads type
c. Voohees type

Some of the merits cited for the gravity models are as follows:
a. Trip resistance is considered
b. Structure of model is easy to understand.
c. Complete OD matrix is not necessarily required.

The demerits, however, are as follows:

a. Reasoning is not clear why human behavior is related to Newton’s gravity law.
b. Index of resistance is arbitrary.
c. Trip distribution within zone is difficult to treat.
d. Trip distribution for near zone pairs tends to be larger than real values and vice versa.

Generalized cost - attempts to put costing on quantifiable and sometimes unquantifiable costs that may be
incurred during a trip using a specified mode.
Disaggregate choice model - This method originated from microeconomics.

ROUTE ASSIGNMENT - Given a road network, car drivers will normally use the route or routes through
which they will reach their destination in the least time or distance.
1. The shortest path - A prerequisite to route assignment is the determination of the shortest path from
one node of the network to another.
2. Network assignment - Given choices or routes, it is but natural to assume that the trip makers will
consider the route that would require the least time or least distance.

Based on this assumption, the methods used to assign the trips within the road network are the
following:

a. All-or-nothing assignment - considering one OD pair, all trips are assigned to the shortest path
from point of origin to point of destination.
b. Constant assignment ratio - In this method, it is assumed that the number of trips assigned to
a route is inversely proportional to the travel time or cost of that route, i.e., more trips will be
assigned to a route providing shorter travel time or lesser cost.
c. Incremental assignment - This method considers the influence of previously assigned trips. It
is based on the Wardrop’s Princicple, which states that out of several routes available between
zones i and j, the routes that are used have equal level of service.