MODULE-2

Traffic Surveys: Traffic Surveys- Speed, journey time and delay surveys, Vehicles Volume
Survey including non-motorized transports, Methods and interpretation, Origin Destination
Survey, Methods and presentation, Parking Survey, Accident analyses-Methods,
interpretation and presentation, Statistical applications in traffic studies and traffic
forecasting, Level of service- Concept, applications and significance

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Traffic engineering studies are carried out for collecting traffic data are also called
traffic surveys. Traffic studies or traffic survey are carried out to analyse the traffic
characteristic in order to meet the future traffic needs. It is used for deciding the geometric
design futures and traffic control for safe and effective traffic measurements. Traffic survey is
used for collecting the data regarding the traffic flow is called traffic census.

The data, collected from the various survey are used for the following purpose

1. Design of pavements

2. Planning of road network

3. Geometric design of highway

4. Traffic regulation and control

2.1.1. Objectives of traffic survey

The important objectives of the traffic survey or traffic studies are as follows:

1. To obtain the details of nature of traffic.

2. To determine the facilities provided on roads

3. To provide the suggestion regarding the improvements of traffic capacity of the road.

4. To analyse the road accidents and to find out the reasons

5. To collect the data from geometric design of highway

6. To provide the adequate parking arrangements

 7. To provide various speed controls arrangements.

2.1.2. Traffic surveys

Following are the various traffic studies in the traffic engineering

1. Traffic volume study

2. Speed study

A. spot speed study

B. Speed and delay study

3. Origin and destination

4. Traffic flow study

5. Traffic capacity study

6. Accident study

7. Parking study

The various traffic survey and studies carried out in traffic engineering are grouped by the
following, as given in the chart
2.2. TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY

The traffic volume study is the traffic survey, involving the process of counting the
no. of vehicle passing a given point on the road during a specified time interval. The traffic
volume is defined as the number of vehicles passing a section of road per unit time at any
selected period.

The following information are collected in the traffic volume study.

1. Variation of traffic volume

a. Hourly variation

b. Daily variation
 c. Yearly variation

d. Seasonal variation

2. Volume and direction of traffic

3. Variation of vehicle of traffic

4. Ratio of car, heavy vehicle and slow vehicles etc.

It is important that, before the starting the traffic volume study, the location of the traffic
count stations (or points) are to be fixed. The station are to be selected, by dividing every
road into convenient sections and each section carries approximately equal traffic flow.

2.2.1. Purpose of traffic volume study

The purpose of volume study can be summarized as follows

1. To know the number and type of vehicle using a particular road

2. To plan, design and regulate the traffic factors in traffic engineering

3. importance of any road facility

4. To help in the structural design

5. To carry out the economic studies in highway financing

6. To plan and design the new streets and new facilities

2.2.2. Counting of traffic volume

Variation in traffic may occur from time to time. During a day, the hourly traffic
volume varies and the peak hourly volume may be higher than the average hourly volume.
Daily traffic volumes vary considerably in a week and there are variations with seasons.

The traffic volume counting can be done by anyone of the following methods
1. Manual counts
2. Automatic counts
 a. Photo-electric cell
b. Electrical method
c. Pneumatic method
3. Moving car method

2.2.3. Manual counts

This is the most reliable and best method to obtain the various volume of traffic and the
direction of flow. As per IRC-9:1972, the observer or vehicle counter records the traffic
volume, classification, turning movements and direction of movements.

This method is not suitable for observing the vehicle from a point of all 24 hours of
the day and on all the day around the year

I. Advantage of manual counting method

1. It gives the classified volume of each category of the traffic

2. The direction of each class of traffic and intersection is also recorded

3. The loading conditions (or number of occupants) are also recorded in this
method

4. Other survey can also be conducted during manual count

II. Disadvantage of manual counting method

1. It cannot be adopted for all the 24 hours of the day.

2. It needs supervision and this method is tedious and costly.

3. Its results is not an accurate one.

4. It requires experienced person for additional surveys.

Automatic counter

Generally, the automatic counters are either portable or fixed type’s counters.
Automatic recorder are the mechanical counter which can automatically record the total
number of vehicles passing a section or point of the road in a specified time. Necessary
arrangements is made across the roadway and by suitable mechanical principles. The total
number of vehicles passing the section is recorded automatically.

Generally, there are three methods in this type of counting which follows are:

i. Photo-electric Cell:
In this method, the automatic counter is actuated by the interruption of a light beam
falling on the photo-electric cell, placed on the roadside, when a vehicle passes.
ii. Electrical Method:
In the Electrical Method, the counter is actuated by closing of an electric circuit, by
the passage of vehicle.
iii. Pneumatic Method:
In the Pneumatic Method, the counter is actuated by, an air switch attached to a
flexible hose, stretched across the road over which the vehicle passes.

I. Advantages of Automatic recording method:

1. This method is suitable for long count and permanent installation
2. It does not require any supervision
3. It can records, the total hourly volume.

II. Disadvantages of Automatic recording method:

1. This method is not an accurate method. (If two or more vehicles pass at the same
time, the machine records only one vehicle).
2. It cannot possible to record type of traffic and their turning movements
3. It is not so suitable for pedestrian traffic volume.

II.2.5. Moving car (observer) method

  This method is carried out by recording the number of vehicles met, overtaken and the
time taken by the observer moving against the traffic and moving along with the
traffic

 Traffic volume count can be calculated by using the following relationship

a+ b
Vehicle in one direction, Q=
t a +t b

Where,

a= n o. of cars met, when moving against the directions

b= no. of cars overtaken when the observer to travel against the traffic

ta= time taken by the observer to travel against the traffic

tb= time taken to travel with the traffic

The accuracy of this method is depending on the number of tests conducted.

II.2.6. Uses of traffic volume study

1. To analyse the traffic trends and pattern

2. To design intersection with respect to signals timings and other traffic control
devices
3. To design load of pavements, bridges and culverts
4. To plan for protection of pedestrians, sidewalks, islands, barriers and signals.
5. To study economic uses of road and tax collection processes.
6. To establish the importance of the road
7. To recommend one way street and other regulatory measures to remove the traffic
congestion.
8. To suggest new rates and additional facilities.

II.2.7. Period/Duration of traffic volume data

  As per IRC recommendation, the data or volume count for rural roads should be
taken for full week, at a time spread over a 7 consecutive days and 24 hours
during each day.

 Counts are taken at least twice for every year

 One count is taken during the peak season of harvesting and marketing time and
the other counts is taken during the normal seasons

II.2.8. Presentation of traffic volume data

Depending on the requirement the data is collected depending on the traffic volume studies
are presented in any one of the following methods

1. Analyse Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

2. Variations charts(facilities and regulations needed during peak hours)

3. Trend charts(rate of growth and planning for future)

4. Traffic volume maps

5. Volume flow diagram

6. 30th highest hourly volume

I. Analyse Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

Average annual daily traffic of the total traffic and classified traffic are calculated and
these data are calculated and these data are used to decide the importance of various routes.

In developing country like India, the traffic is of mixed type traffic and the highway
capacity is generally expressed in terms of Passenger car units (PCU)

PCU is the representation of capacity any road recommended by IRC and CRRI for various
categories of vehicles. The PCUs are considered as constant and they do not account for
variation in traffic composition and volume. The following table shows the equivalent factors
of PCUs for rural roads, except at intersections.
 Type of vehicle Equivalent factor for PCU
Passenger car, Tempo, Auto-rickshaw 1
Cycle, motorcycle, scooter 0.5
Cycle rickshaw 1.5
Truck, bus, agriculture tractor trailer 3.0
unit
Horse-drawn vehicle 4.0
Bullock cart (small) 6.0
Bullock cart (large) 8.0

II. Variation charts: it showing hourly, daily and seasonal variations are prepared.
These help in deciding the facilities and regulation needed during peak traffic periods.

III.Trend charts: it showing volume trends over period of years are prepared. These data
are useful for estimating the rate of growth and for planning future expansion, design
and regulation.

IV. Volume flow diagram at intersections either drawn to certain scale or indicating
traffic volume is prepared, thus showing the details of crossing and turning traffic.
These data are needed for intersection design. (figure 5.2)

V. Traffic flow maps along the routes, (the thickness of the lines representing the
traffic volume to any desired scale), are drawn. These help to find the traffic volume
distribution at a glance.

VI. 30th Highest Hourly Volume

30th Highest Hourly Volume, is defined as the hourly volume that will be exceeded
only 29 times in a year and all other hourly volume of the year will be less than this
value. The 30th highest hourly volume can be calculated from the graph, draw between
the hourly volume and the number of hours in a year, the traffic volume exceeded. This
 method is generally termed as 30 HV. Generally, the 30 th hourly volume is considered
for design in all the cases. (Figure 5.3)

2.3.1. In the traffic engineering, especially regarding speed studies, the following terms
are important for a highway engineer.

1. Spot speed
Spot speed is defined as the instantaneous speed of vehicle at a specified location and
specified time.

2. Running speed
The average speed of the vehicle, maintained in the given rate is called Running
speed
3. Operating speed
Operating speed is defined as running speed at which a driver can travel by
considering the existing traffic and climatic conditions.

4. Running speed or Journey speed

Overall speed or Journey speed is defined as the effective speed, with which a
vehicle travels in a given route between two terminals.
5. Time mean speed and space mean speed: Refer from first module

II.3.2. Spot speed study

Spot speed study is useful for various traffic engineering studies such as geometric
design, accidental studies, etc. The spot speeds are highly affected by various physical
features of the highways, as follows.

1. Width of the pavement

2. Curves and type of curves
3. Sight distance
4. Surface smoothness of the pavement
5. Gradients
6. Roadside developments (termed as Ribbon Development)
7. Climatic conditions etc.

II.3.3. Methods of calculating Spot speed

The following method are used to measure the spot speed
1. Mirror box or enoscope
2. Pressure contact strip method
3. Radar speed meter method
4. Electronic meter
5. Photo-electric meter

II.3.3.1. Mirror box or enoscope method

 Enoscope is an L-shaped box having the openings at both ends. It contains mirrors set at
an angle of 45o, for eliminating the parallax effect of direct timing method, as shown in figure
2.3.

The device diverts the line of sight of the observer to the right angle (90 o) to path of
the movement of vehicle, when the vehicle enters or leaves the zone of measurement. The
enoscope instrument is placed in the opposite to the point of entry to the point of exit.

The observer takes up a position is such a way that he can see in the enoscope box.
When a vehicle passes, it produces a shadow on the mirror, and the stopwatch is started or
stopped. If the observer exist in a station, only one enoscope is sufficient. If two boxes are
used, the observer can fix the station, anywhere between the two enoscope boxes, as shown in
figure 2.4.

During night or poor lightening timings, time measurements can also be taken by
placing small lights at reference points directly opposition to the mirror boxes. When the light
source and mirror that is the indication of end of timing.
Disadvantages

1. Not suitable for heavy multilane traffic. ( the reason for this is the difficulty of
associating an observed shadow flash with a particular vehicle)

2. It is difficult to conceal the investigator and mirror box from passing traffic, which
will give the flash record of the speed

2.3.3.2. Pressure Contact strip method

Electrical or pneumatic type contact strips are used in this method to measure the spot speed
of the vehicle. The main purpose of using the contact strips are

1. To avoid the error due to the manually starting and stopping of the stopwatch and
2. To avoid the error due to parallax effect.

In this method, two pneumatic tubes are or road tubes are fixed across the carriage way at a
particular distance apart. When the vehicle crosses over the first tube, an air impulse is sent
instantaneously along the tube. This impulse or signal activates the time measuring
equipment in the operator’s hand. When the vehicle passes the second tube, signal activates
the time measuring equipment to stop it. The reading can be automatically recorded in terms
of KMPH.

Following are the disadvantages of the pressure strip method

1. Difficulty of fixing the strip with gravel roads

2. Strips may get damaged due to chain tyres, crawler tractor and other hand equipment.

2.3.3.3. Radar speed meter method

 These meters work on the Doppler principle that the speed of a moving body is
proportional to the change in the frequency between the radio wave transmitted
to the moving body and the radio wave received back.
  The speed meter is so kept that the angle between the direction of travel of the
vehicle and the axis of transmission of the radio wave is as low as possible.
 The instrument is setup near the edge of carriage way at a height of about 1m,
above the ground level.
 The speeds of the vehicle in both directions can be observed.

2.3.3.4. Electronic meter

2.3.3.5. Photo electric meter

2.4. Presentation of spot speed data:

A) Average speed of the vehicles: From the spot speed data, frequency distribution
tables are prepared by arranging the data in groups. The arithmetic mean is taken as
the average speed.
B) Modal average: A frequency distribution curve of spot speeds is plotted with average
speed on X-axis and the percent of vehicles on Y-axis below figure represents the
speed distribution curve. This is having definite peak value of travel speed across the
section and this speed is denoted as modal speed. It is very helpful in determining the
speed at which the greatest proportion of vehicles moves.

Modal average

C) Cumulative speed of the vehicles: A graph is plotted with the average values of each
speed group on the X-axis and the cumulative percent of vehicles travelled at or
below the different speeds on the Y-axis. From this graph, the 85 th percentile speed is
found out which gives the speed at or below 85 percent of the vehicles are passing the
point on the highway. In below figure the drivers exceeding 85 th percentile speed are
usually considered to drive faster than the safe speed under existing conditions and
 hence this speed is adopted for the safe speed limit at this zone. However for the
purpose of highway geometric design the 98 th percentile speed is taken. The 15 th
percentile speed represents the lower speed limit and 50 th percentile speed represents
the median speed limit.

Figure: Cumulative speed of the vehicles

OR

Graphical method

From the observation collected by traffic volume study, a curve or graph is drawn
between the spot speed in KMPH and frequency of indicated speed in %. The following
figure shows the typical estimation of spot speed by graphical method.
Model Speed

Model speed is defined as the speed at which, the highest number of vehicles travel.
It is the maximum value of the frequency distribution curve as shown in figure. In the above
figure, average model speed is 28KMPH.

Pace of the traffic

The frequency curve is used for the estimation pace of the traffic stream. The pace of
the traffic is defined as the range of speed, which contains the most vehicles, for same
nominal increment of speed generally 15 KMPH. The cumulative curve is as shown in figure
2.6 and it is very useful for the determination of the speed above or below at which certain
percentage of vehicles are travelling.

Medium speed

It is middle or 50% speed and at this speed, there are many vehicles going faster as,
there are going slower.

The 85 percentile speed

It is the speed, below which 85 percentile of the vehicles are being driven. This speed
is considered to be the value, at which the motorists are tempting the safety conditions of
highways. This speed is often used as the factor in establishing an upper limit for traffic
management purposes.

The 15 percentile speed

It is the speed volume, which should be utilized as the minimum speed on important
highways. It is to noted that, vehicles travelling below this speed on a high-speed highway
have the potential accident hazards.

In the above graph, the 15 percentile speed is 22 KMPH.

The 98 percentile speed

It is the speed, below which 98 percentile of the vehicle are being driven. This speed is
considered to be the value, at which the motorists are tempting the safety conditions of
highways. The speed is often used as the factor in establishing an upper limit for traffic
management purposes.

2.3.SPEED AND DELAY STUDIES

In this study, two stations are divided and the fluctuations in speeds of vehicles between the
two stations are recorded. This survey gives the information such as the amount, location,
duration and frequency and the casus of the delay in the traffic system. Hence, the speed and
delay study gives the detail about how much time is spent by a vehicle in traffic flow.

The study is carried out analyse the following:

1. Trend studies
2. Sufficient ratings
3. Before and after studies
4. Traffic assignment to new facilities
5. Economic studies
6. Congestion
7. Determination of the efficiency of a street

The delays or the time lost by traffic during the travel period can be classified into the
following categories
 1. Fixed Delay
2. Operational Delay

1. Fixed Delay
The delay which occurs primarily at intersections due to traffic signals and at level
crossings are called Fixed Delay
2. Operational Delay
Delays due to either internal friction within the traffic due to other traffic movements
are called Operational Delays
I. Operational Delays due to internal friction within the traffic are
a. Congestion
b. Lack of capacity
c. Merging theory
II. Operational Delays due to other traffic movements are
a. Parking and un-parking of vehicles
b. Turning vehicles
c. Pedestrians
d. Stalled vehicle
e. Double parking
f. Cross-traffic

II.4.1. Methods of Speed and Delay Studies

The following methods are to analyse the delay survey

1. Floating car or Riding check method

2. Elevated observer method
3. Licence plate or vehicle number method
4. Interview technique
5. Photographic technique

II.4.1.1. Floating car or riding check method

 • In the floating car method, a test vehicle (generally a car) is allowed to travel at
average speed with the traffic. A number of test runs are made along the study stretch
and a group of observer record the various details.
• One observer is attached with stop watches to record the time at various control points
(like intersections, bridges etc.,) and to find the durations of individual delays.
• The time, location and casus of these delays are recorded by the second observer
either on suitable tabular form or by voice recording equipment.
• The number of vehicles overtaking the test car and the number of vehicles overtaken
by the test car are recorded by the third observer.
• The number of vehicles travelling in the opposite direction in each travel is recorded
by the fourth observer.
• In this method, all required information about the speed and delay including location,
duration and casus of delays are recorded.
• The average travel time, for all the vehicles in a traffic flow, in the direction of flow,
is given by the following equation
Vehicle in one directions t = tw - n y / q
q = (n a + ny)/ (t a + t w)

Where,
q = flow of vehicles (volume per min) in one direction of the stream
tw = average journey time, in minute when the test vehicle is traveling with the
stream q
ta = average journey time, in minute when test vehicle is running against the
stream q
na = average no. of vehicle counted in the direction of stream q when the test
vehicle travels in the opposite direction or against the stream
ny = the average no. of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus the no. of
vehicles overtaken when the test in the direction of the stream

II.4.1.2. License Plate Method/ Vehicle number method

In license plate method, synchronized stop watches or voice recording equipment are
used. Observers are stationed at the entrance and exit of a test stretch where information of
travel time is required. The timings and the vehicle numbers are noted by the observers of the
selected sample of the vehicle in the stream. From the office computations, travel time of
each vehicles could be found. But the method does not give important details such as causes
of delays and the duration and number of delays within the test stretch. Also office
computations are cumbersome and time consuming

II.4.1.3. Interview method

In this method, the observers are placed at the entrance and exit of the test stations, at
which the travel time is required. The timing and the vehicle numbers are noted by observers
of the selected traffic. From the above observations, the travel time of each vehicle could be
found.

This method is only suitable when the amount of turning off on the route is, not great, and
only overall speeds are obtained. It does not show locations, casus, frequency or durations of
delay.

II.4.1.4. Elevated Observation and Photographic Technique

In this method, the observers are stationed at elevated points such as high buildings,
from which a considerable length of route may be observed. Observers selected vehicles at
random and record time, locations and cause of delay. It is difficult to secure suitable points
for observations all observation all along the route to be studied.

II.4.2. Uses of speed and Delay studies

The various important and uses of speed and delay studies are as follows

1. To decide the changes in time interval of the road light signals

2. To estimate the travel time and to decide the efficiency of the highway
3. To find out the causes of the traffic congestion and the suggestion for remedial
measures
4. To provide the information regarding smooth and easy traffic
5. To take decisions about conversion of road in to one-way streets

II.5. ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES

 The origin and Destination (O&D) survey is carried out for the purpose of the
following

1. Planning and design of highway routes and terminals

2. Planning and design of freeway location, interchanges
3. Improvement of existing route the terminal facilities
4. Designation of one-way routes, traffic signals, limited parking etc.
5. Determination of future needs

II.5.1. Objectives:
 Origin and Destination studies give information on the actual location or zones of
Origin of travel of vehicles or individual passenger trips and their Destination.
 These studies provide detail such as direction of travel, selection of routs, trip length
and frequency and number of such trips.
 The study area may cover the entire country or a selected region within the country or
state or within the city or any identified area.
 The O & D studies provide the basic data for determining the desired directions of
vehicular flow or passenger trips in terms of the Desired lines
 Desire lines are straight lines joining the points of Origin and Destination of each trip.
 O & D studies on vehicular traffic are essential for either comprehensive planning of
new road network or for improvements in the existing road network.
 The O & D data on vehicular traffic are also useful for planning and design of
expressways, bypasses around congested towns and cities, location for truck
terminals, truck lay-byes/rest areas, etc.

II.5.2. Types of O & D studies:

O & D studies may be carried out covering travel details of either vehicles or passenger trips.
1) O & D studies of vehicular traffic determine the number of vehicles originating from
different zones and their destination to various zones in the study area. The data may
also be supplemented by various other information such as number of passengers in
each vehicle, purpose of trip, intermediate stops made if any, with reasons etc. often
detailed o and d studies are required on commercial /goods vehicles and the additional
details collected may include type of commodity transported, quantity or net weight,
 trip length, number of trips in a week or month, average distance travelled in a day,
route followed, preference for alternate routes, willingness to pay for new facility, etc.
Apart from these, details of axle loads and their configuration may also be noted.
2) O & D studies on passengers or passenger trips consists of collecting data on locations
of origin and destination, types of transport vehicles used, trip length, purpose of trip,
number of trips in a day or week, average distance travelled in a day, choice of the
route and transport vehicle for the journey, preferred alternatives, etc. The data will be
useful for the planning and design of urban expressways, urban corridor
improvements, planning of bus routes and frequency of trips, augmentation of bus
fleet or re-routing or rescheduling, planning and design of terminals, need for
alternate rapid mass transportation system, etc.

II.5.3. Applications of O & D studies

The various application of O & D studies are

1. Planning of new network of roads

2. Planning of transportation system
3. Location of expressway
4. Location and arrangement of by-passes
5. Location of new bridges
6. Location of intermediate steps of public transport
7. Establishment of design standards etc.,

II.5.4. Method of collecting O and D data

The following methods are used to collect the O and D data employed to prepare the
comprehensive traffic plan for a city

1. Roadside interview
2. Observation of registration numbers
3. Postcard survey
4. Tags or stickers on vehicles
5. Home interview method
6. Working place interview method
II.5.4.1. Roadside interview

Well trained and highly skilled observers are used to collect the O & D data at the selected
stations. The vehicles are stopped and each driver is asked the following questions.

1. Origin
2. Destination
3. Purpose of the travel
4. Route selected
5. Locations of stops
6. Purpose of stops
7. Type of vehicle
8. Number of passengers in vehicles

This method provides the direct, quick and accurate data and this method requires minimised
office work. All the vehicles are not stopped before the data collections. Hence, sampling
technique is involved. The time interval may be taken as one hour or 30 minutes. Generally,
the following three methods are used for sampling.

1. In the first method, a fixed of vehicles are to be stopped. (that is, for a passing of 10
vehicles, only 3 vehicles are stopped for sampling and remaining 7 vehicles are
allowed to pass)
2. In the second method, all the vehicles are stopped during the sampling timing. (That
is, all vehicle would be stopped for every 30 minutes time, for obtaining the 50% time
sample).
3. The third method is almost similar to second method expect that no attempt is made to
maintain the fixed relationship between the number of drives interviewed and the total
number of vehicles on the road.

The third method is well suited to points, where major routes enter the urban areas and
other focal points in traffic pattern. It is less satisfactory in dense urban areas with
multiplicity of routes, because of number of stations required and the difficulties of
meeting qualifications for safety and traffic capacity.

II.5.4.2. Observation of Registration numbers

This method is suitable for smaller areas with a minimum number of entry and exit points. In
this survey, two types of sampling methods are employed which are as follows.

1. In the first method of observation of Registration Number, observers record the

registration numbers from the license plate, at the selected points of entry and exit. All
the details are recorded in a datasheet which contains the details of location, direction
and time period of movement. The collected details are later analysed by tracing each
licence plate number through the complete record. This method is highly suited where
the traffic is very long.
2. In the second method of the survey, it is to record for given day, the registration
number of all vehicles parked within the survey are. These details are then compared
later with the motor vehicle registration lists and the origin of each vehicle is assumed
to be where it garaged. The main advantage of this method are its simplicity, low-cost
and freedom of data collection, etc.

The important disadvantages of this method are the result obtained has limited value and
the data collected are not related with the traffic, purpose and this method gives the
incomplete knowledge of ‘O’ and ‘D’ survey. Again, its use is also limited to small areas.

II.5.4.3. Postcard Survey

The Postcard Survey is carried out, where traffic is too high and the vehicles cannot be
stopped for long time for interview. In this method, postcards with the suitable questionnaire
are given to the drivers, as they pass the stations. Stations are points where the vehicle stay
for sometimes such as intersections and toll gates. In this method, the postcard itself is
printed with a request that the driver should complete and post it.

For success of this method, a pre-advertisement through the media regarding this survey
is essential. If the responses from the drivers are more than 50% means, this method is having
great impact and if it lies between 25 to 50%, then the study is also accepted. A response of
10% or less is considered too small response.

II.5.4.4. Tags or stickers on vehicles

In this method, a pre-coded card is attached with the vehicle or given to the driver as it enters
the area, under study. When the vehicle leaves the area, the tag is removed and time, station,
direction of travel and other observed information is recorded on it.
 It gives only the point of exit and entry and the time to transverse the area. It is used
to identify the vehicles which use the bypass. This can be done by assuming that, any vehicle
taking less than one and half times as long as the average minimum time required to
transverse the area through a vehicle.

II.5.4.5. Home Interview

In this method, the survey is carried out by surveying to the homes and interviewing,
sampling process is adopted and adjusted thereof to a 100% basis. The size of the sample is
depending on the population of the locality.

This method is a time consuming and comprehensive method, not suited for smaller
areas. This method will not cover the movement of vehicles coming into survey area from
outside.

II.5.4.6. Workplace interview method

In this method, the place of interview is shifted to workplace and hence the time and man
power required for conducting the study will reduced. Travel particulars cannot be collected
from many employees at the same time, hence this method consumes less time and minimum
cost.

II.5.5. Methods and Presentation of O and D data

The result of an O and D study are always expressed in the form of

1. Matrix form
2. Desire line graphs

I. Matrix form

The most convenient form is an O and D matrix. In this matrix, the destination zones are
represented in horizontal axis and the origin zones represented in vertical axis.

The zones may further be classified into internal and external zones, if necessary. The
number of trips (travel for O and D survey) may be included in the matrix cell.
  In this matrix t3-4 represents the number of trips originating in zone 3 and terminating
in zone 4.

II. Desired line Graph

Generally, these graphs are drawn to represent the number of trips between the zone of
origin and the zone of destination. The greater the band thickness the greater being the
number of travels.

These desire lines charts can be represented in many ways, separate graphs may be drawn
to shows the same line through the travel, internal trips and travel between internal and
external zones. These desire lines help to find the necessity of a new road link, a diversion, a
bypass or a new bridge.
Contour lines may be plotted similar to topographic contours and the shape of the contour
indicates the general traffic need of the area. The relative magnitude of the generated traffic
and geometric relationships of the zones involved may be represented by pie-charts, in which
circles are drawn, the diameter being proportional to the number of trips.

or

Desire Line Chart

 The most popular pictorial representation is by means of a desire line chart, the trips
between any pair of zones are represented by a straight line connecting the centroids
of the two zones and having a band width drawn to a suitable scale to represent the
actual volume of the trips.
 A typical desire line chart is given below.
2.6 TRAFFIC CAPACITY STUDIES:

The following terms may be used for traffic capacity studies

1. Traffic capacity: is defined as the number of vehicles travelling at a particular station

on a road in unit of time. Traffic capacity may also be defined as the ability of a
highway to accommodate the traffic volume
2. Traffic density: is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of lane
of roadway at a given instant. The direct measurement of traffic density is a difficult
one and hence, the following fundamental relationship is used to calculate the traffic
density.
Average volume of vehicles, Q=DV
Where, D= average density (number of vehicles/km)
V= mean speed of the vehicles (km/hr)

2.6.1 Basic Capacity:

The maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a given point on a lane on a highway
during the unit time under the ideal conditions and the traffic conditions which can be
possible to be obtained is called basic capacity of a traffic lane.
2.6.2 Possible or Practical Capacity:

The possible capacity of the traffic lane is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a
given station on a roadway during one hour, without traffic problems. The factors which
affect the possible capacity of the vehicle are

1. Lane width and number of lanes

2. Lateral clearance
3. Shoulder width
4. Dimension of the commercial vehicles
5. Speed
6. Alignment and geometrics
7. Presence of intersections
8. Vehicular characteristics
9. Driver’s characteristics on road
10. Traffic volume and nature of traffic

1. Lane width and number of lanes:

As the lane width decreases the capacity also decreases. The practical capacity of 3.0
m wide lane in a two lane rural road may decrease to 76% of the capacity of a 3.5 m
lane.

2. Lateral clearance:
Vertical obstructions such as retaining walls or parked vehicles near the traffic lane
reduce the effective width of a lane and thus result in reduction in capacity of the lane.
Further restricted clearance affects driving comfort and increases rates. A minimum
clearance of 1.85 m from the pavement edge to the obstruction is considered desirable
so that capacity is not affected adversely.
When the distance from pavement edge to an obstruction decreases to 0.75 m on one
side only, the capacity decreases to 96% and when this obstruction is on both sides,
the percentage further decreases to 80% of the standard design capacity.
3. Shoulder width:
Narrow shoulder reduces the effective width of traffic lanes as the vehicles travels
towards the centre of the pavement. When vehicles in emergency (like that of a tyre
puncture or other breakdown) have to park on the shoulder of insufficient width, there
is reduction in effective lane width, resulting in the great reduction of capacity of the
lane.
4. Dimension of the commercial vehicles:
Large commercial vehicles like truck and buses occupy greater space and influence
the other traffic in the same lane as well as the vehicles along the adjoining lanes.
Also these heavy commercial vehicles may travel at low speed especially on grades.

5. Speed:
The traffic capacity increase with increase of speed. It is clearly noted that from the
formula C= 1000V/(S+l), whenever V increases corresponding C also increases.

6. Alignment and geometrics:

If the alignment and geometrics are not up to the desired standards, the capacity will
decrease. Particularly, restrictions to sight distance requirements cause reduction in
capacity. Steep and long grades affect the capacity and decrease to 65% of the
standard design capacity.

7. Presence of intersections:
Intersections restrict free flow of traffic and thus adversely affect the capacity. The
capacity of an intersection of two roads crossing at grade will be slightly less than the
road with the lower capacity of the two. At signalized intersections as the vehicles
have to stop alternatively to allow crossing traffic, the capacity of the intersection will
be further decreased. In order to provide consistent traffic flow and the maximum
capacity on the important highways, it is necessary to plan them as controlled access
highways with grade separated intersections.
2.7. PARKING STUDIES OR PARKING SURVEY
The continuous increase in the number of all types of vehicles has created traffic and parking
problems, in almost all the major part of our country. The parking demand may get increased
further at a higher rate in the future. With this increase the present traditional method of
parking along the will be inadequate.
2.7.1. Terms and conditions
Parking duration:
The length of time spent in a parking space is called Parking Duration.
Parking volume:
 The number of vehicles parking in a particular area over a given period of time.
 Measured in vehicles per day.
Parking accumulation: The total number of vehicles parked in an area at a specified
moment is called Parking accumulation. The curve of parking accumulation for a typical
day is given figure 2

Parking load:
 The area under the parking accumulation curve during a specified period. For example.
In figure below, the hatched area represents the parking load in vehicles-hour for a
period of 4 hours from 6AM to 10 AM.
Parking index:
Percentage of parking bays actually occupied by parked vehicles as compared to the
theoretical number available.
Parking index = Number of bays occupied x 100
Theoretical number of bays available
Parking turn-over:
Rate of usage of the available parking space. Thus if there were 10 parking spaces
used by 100 vehicles in a period of say 12 hours, then the parking turnover would be;
=100/10 vehicles per space in a period of 12 hours

2.7.2. Necessity of Parking Studies

(a) To collect the information regarding supply and demand of parking facilities.
(b) For development of plans for determining size, locations, financing, constructions and
operation of motor vehicle terminal facilities
(c) For improvements regulation of existing parking facilities
Traffic studies have shown that the proper space control on parking by demarcating parking
stalls optimize the utilization of available space for parking, reduced parking-un-parking time
and increase the efficiency of the roads and parking systems. Moreover, by scientific
planning, planning, regulation and control of parking reduces the number of accidents.

2.7.3. Types of parking surveys:

The following are the types of parking surveys usually conducted:

1. Parking space inventory.

2. Parking usage survey by patrol.
3. Questionnaire type parking usage survey.
4. Cordon count.

Parking space inventory: in this method is used to collect data on amount, type and location
of space actually available for parking.

 The area to be surveyed should first be delineated. The central business district (CBD)
is usually the area where survey is needed. The area surrounding the CBD also be
included in the survey.
 The area is subdivided on a street by street basis and is marked in map. The map
prepared in advance.
  Data on parking facilities should be recorded on those maps by using suitable
symbols.
 The items to be recorded should include the following:

a. Total length of kerb, street width.

b. Number of parking spaces provided in the street.
c. Location of bus stops, bus bays, pedestrian crossings, fire hydrants, loading zones,
taxi stands, private streets, etc.
d. Traffic management measures, such as prohibited turns, one way streets, traffic
signs for regulation parking.
e. Vacant or unused land suitable for temporary or permanent parking space.

Parking usage survey by patrol:

 This method is used for obtain data on the extent of usage of parking spaces.
 It includes counts of parked vehicles at regular intervals in morning and evening peak
hours.
 It can be for on-street and off-street parking
 On-street parking consists of making periodic observations of parked vehicles on each
patrol/person.
 For off-street parking, the entire parking space can be patrolled.
In this method, mapping of the study area is prepared, based on that area the patrols are
recruited, the patrols are collect the data with a normal walk (a speed of 900 m in half an hour
is useful guide) for an 10 -12 hours in a day is taken and analyse.

Questionnaire type parking usage survey:

 It involves interviews with drivers or by car owners who use the parking facility.
 A sample of car owners are selected from the list and the questionnaires are delivered
to them , it the park areas , information collected should include:

i. Address of origin and destination of the trip.

ii. Trip purpose.
iii. Time of arrival and time of departure of parking place.
iv. Type of vehicle and type of parking space used.

Cordon count:

 The area which is surveyed is demarcated by cordon lines.

 Counting stations are established at these areas and the count is made of all the
vehicles entering and leaving the area.

2.7.4. Design factor off street parking

The various factors for the design of off street parking are described below

I. Entrance and exit

(a) these should be located far from street intersections so that the street traffic is not
interfered with
(b) As far as possible these should be provided on minor streets with less traffic flow.
(c) Vehicles entering and leaving should diverge and merge with the traffic stream at
low relative speed. One-way system is preferable with street speed are high.
Acceleration and deceleration lanes may be utilized for diverging and merging at low
relative speed.
(d) Diverging have adequate sight distance along street being entered.
(e) Prohibiting of right turns into and out of parking facilities may be necessary to reduce
street congestion.
 II.Stall size and layout
Design of parking stalls and Aisles involves,
(a) Dimension and turning radii of vehicle
(b) Clearance between vehicles parked in the stalls
(c) Angle and direction of parking
(d) Clearance between parked and parking vehicle

The overall dimension i.e. length and width of different types of vehicles, as supported by
CRRI, New Delhi, India to access the minimum size of parking stall are shown below.

III.Aisle width

Aisle should be arranged for circulation within parking area. For angle parking, best
arrangements is a series of one-way aisle that alternate direction. A distance of at 1.0 m for
‘parked’ and other ’moving cars’ should be provided. Therefore, minimum aisle width
becomes 4 m for one way and 7.5 m for two-way movement.

IV.Surfacing

The parking area should be well surfacing and properly marked. Concrete or bituminous
surfacing is preferable.

V.Walkways

Pedestrian safety is often a problem at internal entrance and exit. Pedestrian safety
should be one of the important factor in design of entrance and exits.

Shadowing of pedestrians by islands or control of pedestrians by signals may be

necessary. Suitable walkways should be provided

VI.Lighting:

Efficient lighting of parking lots is necessary for right operations

vii. Number and locations of elevators:

The parking demand and the restricted area may be necessitate multilevel parking
facilities.
 viii. Drainage:

If a low lying area is selected for constructing a parking facility, the area should be
suitably raised by earth filling. Proper slopes and drains should be provided to eliminate
pooling of water.

As per IRC recommendations, minimum parking space requirements for such car and
truck should be as follows:

 For car 3m x 6mwhen individual parking is required.

 2.5m x 5 m when parking lots for community parking are required.
 For trucks 3.75x 7.5 m.

2.7.5 Off street parking methods:

Off –street parking solves the problem in major cities. Various methods of off-street parking
are:

1. Surface car parks

2. Underground car parks
3. Multi-storey car parks
4. Roof parks
5. Mechanical car parks

1. Surface car parks:

For Indian conditions, a stall of size 2.5 m x 5 m is probably adequate. These parks
are to be located on place surrounding land near the office complexes or supermarket.

Advantages

The important advantages of this system are

i. Simple system
ii. Parking and un-parking is easy
iii. If this system is operated with fee charging system, it permits the collection of
money
Disadvantages:

i. Requires land near the office or super market complex.

2. Underground car parking system:

These parking can be developed in the basement of any multi-storeyed building or

below open spaces. The important advantage of this parking is the least intrusion, they cause
to the aesthetics of a place.

The important advantage of this method is that, it involves large quantities of excavation,
construction of retaining walls, ventilation and lightening etc.

3. Multi-storey car park:

Multi-storey car parking eliminates the larger consumption of land in the heart of the
city. It is designed for about 500 car parks.

Advantages:

i. Removes the consumption of important spaces near complexes.

ii. Permits the increase the capacity of parking

Disadvantages:

i. Requires more space for access ramps

ii. Requires artificial lighting and ventilation etc.

4. Roof Parks:

This method solves the parking problems adopted in many cities. Across ramps or
mechanical lifts provide the necessary across to the roofs. The important disadvantage of this
method is that is that, it consumes more cost for construction.

5. Mechanical car parks:

It provides the lifting of cars from floor to floor by means of a lift and transfer of cars to and
from the parking stall by means of wheeling or mechanically operated transfer dollies or
cradles. The advantages of this system are,
 i. It is more economical in space
ii. It eliminates ramps and aisles

The disadvantages of this system are higher maintenance costs and the possibility of
breakdown due to power or mechanical failure.

2.7.6 Parking system:

Parking lots are provided at places where land is available at comparatively cheaper cost. In
parking lots where parking of vehicles is done by driver of the car itself, then it is known as
“self-parking system”.

On the other hand, if the vehicle is left by the owner at the entrances and again
collected from there, the parking and delivering operations being carried out by the
attendants, it is known as “Attendant Parking System”. The attendant parking system
requires less space to park the same number of cars when compared to self-parking system.

In place where the land is very costly, multi storeyed-parking gauges are employed to park
large number of cars at a time.

The various traffic operations consist of the following steps:

1. Entrance
2. Acceptance
3. A
4. A
5. A
 The space required for vehicles during entrance, acceptance and exit operations is called
the reservoir area. The inter floor level facility for the vehicles in case of multi-storeyed
parking gauges is provided either by elevators or by ramps.

In case of on-street parking, the vehicles are parked on the kerb. The kerb parking can be
either unrestricted or restricted type. The various markings indicating parking space limits
are shown in figure 2.15.

II.7.7. STATISTICAL APPLICATIONS IN THE TRAFFIC STUDIES:

Because traffic engineering involves the collection and analysis of large amounts of data for
performing all types of traffic studies, it follows that statistics is also an important element in
traffic engineering. It helps us determine how much data will be required as well as what
meaningful inference can confidently be made based on the data.

Statistics is required whenever it is not possible to directly observe or measure all the values
needed.

Basic principles of probability and statistics that is relevant to these analyses.

 Discrete versus continuous function:

 Discrete functions are made up of discrete variables-that is, they can assume only
specific whole values and any value in between. Continuous function, made up of
continuous variables, can assume any value between two given values.

 Randomness and distributions describing randomness.

 Organizing data.
 Common statistical estimators.

2.7.8. TRAFFIC FORECASTING:

2.7.8.1. Need:

 For the design and development of highway geometric facilities not only by taking the
present traffic data, but it is essential to know the future traffic data.
 For the widening of width of road and right of way.
 For design of highway elements like horizontal and vertical alignment.
 For the design of other infrastructure like bridges, cross drainage structures and the
pavement thickness, etc.

2.7.8.2. Factors influencing traffic growth:

Depends on

1. Economic factors such as a) gross national product(GNP) or gross domestic

product(GDP), b) agricultural output, c) industrial output.
2. Demographic factors such as a) population, b) proportion of rural and urban
population.

2.8. LEVEL OF SERVICE:

When a road is carrying a traffic equal in volume to its capacity under ideal roadway
and traffic conditions. Speed drops down and delays mount up. The service which a road way
offers to the road user can vary under different volume of traffic.

The “Highway Capacity Manual”(HCM) has introduced the concept of “level of

service” to denote the level of facility at different operating characteristics traffic volumes.

It is defined as a qualitative measure describing the operational conditions within a

traffic stream, and their perception by motorists or passengers.

The following are the factors which might be considered in evaluating the level of service:
  Speed and travel time.
 Traffic restrictions.
 Freedom to manoeuvre to maintain the desired operating speeds.
 Driving comfort and convenience.
 Economy, in travel.

From the recommendations of HCM:

 Travel speed
 The ratio of volume to capacity, the letter is often referred to as “v/c ratio”

The operating conditions for the six levels of service selected by the manual, level A
representing the highest and level F representing the lowest.

1. Level of service (A): Free flow, with low volume and high speeds. Traffic density is
low, with speeds controlled by driver’s desired speed limits. Little or no restrictions in
manoeuvrability due to presence of other vehicles and drivers can maintain their
speeds with little or no delay.
2. Level of service (B): Zone of stable flow, with operating speeds bringing to be
restricted somewhat by traffic conditions. Drivers still have freedom to select their
speed and lane of operations. Reductions in speed are not unreasonable. The lower
limit of this level of service has been associated with service volumes use in the
design of rural highways.
3. Level of service (C): Still in the zone of stable flow, but speeds and other
characteristics are more closely controlled by higher volumes. Most of the drivers
restricted in freedom to select their own speed, lane changing and overtaking. A
relatively satisfactory operating speed is still obtained with service volumes perhaps
suitable for urban design practice.
4. Level of service (D): Approaches unstable flow, with tolerable operating speeds
being maintained through considerably affected by changes in operating conditions.
Variations in volume and restrictions in flow may cause drops in speeds. Drivers have
little freedom, comfort and convenience are low.
5. Level of service (E): Cannot be described by speed alone, but represents operations at
even lower operating speeds than in level D, with volumes at or near the capacity of
the highway. Flow may be unstable, and there may be stoppages of momentary
duration.
 6. Level of service (F): Forced flow operations at low speeds, where volumes are below
capacity. Conditions result from queues of vehicles backing up from a obstruction
downstream. Speeds are reduces substantially and stoppages may occur for short or
long periods of time, in the extreme, both speed and volume can drop to zero.

7.

2.8.1. FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE:

1. Roadway factors
2. Traffic factors.

Road way factors:

1. Lane width: As the lane width decreases, the capacity also decreases. The practical
capacity of 3.0 m wide lane on a two-lane road in rural area may decrease to 76
percent of the capacity of a 3.5 m lane.
2. Lateral clearance: Retaining walls, raised culvert walls or parked vehicles near the
traffic lane reduces the effective width of a lane and thus result in reduction in the
capacity of the adjacent lane. A minimum clearance of 1.85 m from the pavement
edge is desirable. If it is 0.75 m on one side, the capacity decreases to 96%and when
this obstructions is on both sides the percentage further decreases to 80%.
3. Width of shoulders: Narrower shoulders reduce the effective width of adjacent
traffic lanes. When in emergencies (tyre puncture or other breakdown) have to park
on the shoulder of insufficient width.
 4. Commercial vehicles: Large commercial vehicles like trucks and buses occupy grater
space and influence the other traffic in the same lane as well as the vehicles along the
adjoining lanes.
5. Alignment: If the alignment and geometrics are not up to the desired standards, the
capacity will decrease.
6. Road geometrics: Presence of sharp horizontal curves, steep gradients, and summit
and valley curves necessitates speed changes and consequently results in lower
highway capacity.
7. Presence of intersection at grade: Intersection restricts free flow of traffic and thus
adversely affects the capacity.

Traffic factors: Speed, One way movement, Number of traffic lanes, Vehicular and driver
characteristics, Composition of traffic and the traffic volume.