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Wet Processing Engineering - I

PART-II
Coloration
(Dyeing & Printing)

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Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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What is Color?

 Color is simply light of different wavelengths and frequencies.

 Color is the byproduct of the spectrum of light, as it is reflected or

absorbed, as received by the human eye and processed by the
human brain.

 It is one of the basic components of fashion.

 Color is the aspect of things that is caused by differing qualities of

light being reflected or emitted by them.

 To see color, you have to have light. When light shines on an object
some colors bounce off the object and others are absorbed by it.
Our eyes only see the colors that are bounced off or reflected.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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The Visible Spectrum

The "visible light” that is visible to the human eye corresponds to a

wavelength range of 400 - 700(nm) and a color range of violet through
red.

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Wavelengths of different color

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Visual Perception of Color

Color may be viewed in two modes
namely:
1. Illuminant mode- when the light
stimulus comes directly from a
source of light, say, an
incandescent lamp or a candle.

2. Object mode- when stimulus

comes from an object either from its
surface (surface mode) or through
the object (volume mode).

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COLOR THEORY

Additive Theory:
 In additive theory colors are used that are in conjunction with emitted
light.
 The additive primary colors are: Red (R), Green (G) and Blue (B)
 If all three of the additive colors were combined together in the form of
light, they would produce white.
 Some examples where additive primary colors are used in television,
theatrical lighting, computer monitors etc.

R + G = Y (Yellow),
G + B = C (Cyan)
B + R = M (Magenta)
R+G+B=

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COLOR THEORY

Subtractive Theory:
 In subtractive theory colors are used that are in conjunction with
reflected light.
 It is also called pigment theory.
 Colored pigments absorb light and reflect only the frequency of the
pigment color.
 All colors other than the pigment colors are absorbed so this is called
subtractive color theory.
 The primary colors in subtractive theory are: Cyan (C), Magenta (M),
Yellow (Y), Black (K)
 Used in printing and painting.
– R = C (– R)
– G = M (– G)
– B = Y (– B)

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COLOR THEORY

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The color order systems

The color order systems are of three types (Wyszecki,

1986):

1. Colorant-mixture system based on subtractive mixture

of colorants. e.g. Pantone.

2. Color-mixture system based on additive mixture of

color stimuli e.g. Ostwald system.

3. Color appearance system based on the principles of

colour perception or color appearance e.g. Munsell.

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Pantone color system

Pantone Color System is basically a colorant mixture system. The
Pantone system began in 1963 in the USA, for defining colors for
printers, but expanded into other fields later, e.g. textiles in 1984,
plastics in 1993, and architecture and interiors (1925 colors) in 2002.

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Munsell (USA) :
Hue, Value and Chroma
The system consists of the following three Independent
dimensions:

1. Hue (Color Name) is described with the words we

normally think of as describing color: red, purple, blue,
etc.

2. Value (Lightness) describes overall intensity to how

light or dark a color is.

3. Chroma (Saturation) may be defined as the strength

or dominance to how bright or dull a color is.

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Munsell color system

On the outer edge of the

hue wheel are the
intensely saturated hues.
Towards the center of the
color wheel, no hue
dominates and they
becomes less and less
saturated.

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Munsell color system

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Munsell color system

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Color Fastness
Fastness: It is the resistance of a textile mtl. to specific chemical
agencies.
Color fastness: The resistance of an mtl. to change in any of its color
characteristics to transfer of its colorant to adjacent mtl. or both as a
result the exposure of the mtl. to any environment that might be
encountered during the processing testing, storage or use of the mtl.

1. Wash fastness
2. Light fastness
3. Perspiration fastness
4. Crocking or Rubbing fastness
5. Dry cleaning fastness
6. Sea water fastness
7. Chlorinated fastness
8. Water fastness

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COLOR MOODS

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COLOR TEMPERATURE

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COLOR ILLUTIONS
To maintain or decrease attention and apparent size, to appear taller and
slimmer
―Cooler hues.
―Darker values.
―Duller intensities.
―Close contrasts.

Example: navy
khaki
grape
charcoal

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COLOR ILLUTIONS

To increase attention and apparent size, to appear shorter and heavier

Warmer hues.
Lighter values.
Brighter intensities.
Strong contrast.
Example: Shocking pink
Pumpkin
tangerine
raspberry

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ANY QUESTION?

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Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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Dyes/Dyestuff

Dyes are colored, unsaturated organic chemical compounds capable of

giving color to substrate (textile) i.e. coloring or dyeing it. Dyes can be
formed synthetically from relatively cheap basic products where specific
functional groups in the dyes which determine or affect the applicability
and fastness.

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Characteristics of dyestuff

 Must contain chromophore groups.

 This chromophore groups may be different types.

 Example; -NO2, -NH2, -CO-, -N=O etc.

 Must able of preparing dilute solution by dissolving water i.e.

solubility.

 Must be power of entering dyestuff to fibre from dye bath i.e.

substantivity.

 Should have fastness property.

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Dyeing

The process by which a textile material is changed physically or

chemically so that it looks colorful is called Dyeing.

The objective of dyeing is to produce uniform colorations of a substrate

usually to match a pre-selected color. The color should be uniform
throughout the substrate and be of a solid shade with no unlevelness or
change in shade over the whole substrate.

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Pigments
Insoluble coloring matters, mostly of mineral origin, have been used
from earliest times for the coloration of metal, wood, stone and other
surfaces as paints in association with oil or water. The pigments, which
are applied by means of binding agent. Such insoluble colorants or
pigments i.e. certain oxides presented a limit range of hues generally of
very good fastness to light but of variable behavior towards other agent.
The more important criteria by which pigments are evaluated are
fastness to light, heat, solvent, acids, alkali and other chemical
agencies.

Advantage: Light fastness very high.

Disadvantage: Harsh fabric, Rubbing fastness is very poor.

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Required criteria of pigments

 Pigments should have good covering power.

 Pigments should have freely mixing properties.
 Pigments should be chemically inert.
 Pigments should have good resistance to Acid.
 Pigments should have suitable brilliance , hardness, and stability.
 Pigments should have good wet , light, and abrasion resistance.
 Pigments should have good characteristics for excellent dispersion
including.

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Difference between dye & pigment

Dye Pigment
1. Water solubility 70% 1. 100% water insoluable.
2. Most of all dyes are organic 2. Most of pigments are inorganic
compounds and some are compound.
metallic compounds.

3. By dyes can not be dyed of all 3. By dyes can be dyed of all types
types of fabric. of fabric.
4. Dye has fastness properties. 4. Pigment has good fastness
properties.
5. Dye diffusions in the fabric. 5. Dye diffusion on the fabric.
6. Costly, as they prepared 6. Cheap as they found by mineral
chemically. origin.
7. No binding agent is required. 7. Binding agent is essential.

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Method of Dyeing

Coloration of a textile material is achieved in a number of different ways:

(1) Direct dyeing, in which the dye in the aqueous solution in contact

with the material is gradually absorbed into the fibres because of its

inherent substantivity;

(2) Direct dyeing followed by chemical reaction of the dye with

appropriate groups in the fiber;

(3) Adhesion of the dye or pigment to the surface of the fibres using an

appropriate binder.

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Principles of Dyeing

The application of color can be achieved by a number of methods, but

the most common three methods are

1. Exhaust dyeing(batch),
2. Continuous (padding) and
3. Printing.

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Exhaust or Batch dyeing

 In exhaust dyeing the dye, which is wholly or partially soluble in the

dyebath, is transported to the fibre surface by the motion of the dye
liquor or by motion of the substrate being dyed.
 The dye is adsorbed onto the fibre surface and ideally diffuses into
the whole of the fibre.
 Depending upon the dye being used, the interactions between the
dye and the fibre can be either chemical or physical.
 Exhaust dyeing is usually conducted using dilute solutions of dyes,
normally termed long liquor dyeing, and can involve liquor to
substrate ratios from 8:1 up to 30:1.

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Exhaust or Batch dyeing

Exhaust dyeing machines

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Continuous Dyeing

 Continuous dyeing is a process whereby dyeing the fabric and

fixation of the dye are carried out continuously in one simultaneous
operation.

 This is traditionally accomplished using a production line system

where units are assembled into lines of consecutive processing
steps; this can include both pre- and post-dyeing treatments.

 Fabric is usually processed in open width, so care must be taken not

to stretch the fabric.

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Continuous Dyeing

Continuous yarn dyeing machines

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Theory of Dyeing
The dyeing process is essentially a distribution process. The dye is
distributed over at least two phase systems; the dye bath and textile
mtls. When equilibrium dyeing is reached, the following subsidiary
equilibria are established:

1. Migration: Migration of the dye from the solution to interface

accompanied by adsorption on the surface of the fibre.

2. Dye in the diffusion layer: Diffusion of the dye from the surface
towards the centre of the fibre.

3. Anchoring: The anchoring of the dye molecules by covalent or

hydrogen bonds, or other forces of physical nature.

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Theory of Dyeing

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Some important terms related to Dyeing

1. Shade %: Shade is expressed in percentage of dye amount in unit
weight of fabric.
Depth of color % (.1-20% owf)
Light shade-<O.5% owm(On the weight of Material)
Medium shade- 0.5%-1.5% owm
Deep shade-More than 1.5%

2. Affinity: The chemical attraction between dyestuff & fiber to combine

together due to influence of heat or temperature is called affinity.
Dyeing is performed for the affinity of dye and fiber.

3. Substantivity: The natural attraction between dyestuff & fiber to

combine together is called substantivity.

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Some important terms related to Dyeing

4. Adsorption: When dye molecules come to the surface of the fiber, it
is called adsorption.

5. Sorption: When dye molecules penetrate into the fiber, it is called

sorption.

6. Desorption: The process by which the dye molecules come out from
the inner side of the textile materials in particular condition is called
desorption.

7. Exhaustion: When three process (Adsorption, desorption, sorption)

is completed, total dye molecules enter into fiber then it is called
exhaustion. Or A proportion of the dye take up by the fiber at the end
of the process relative to the amount originally available is called
exhaustion%.

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Some important terms related to Dyeing

Dye bath
Initial dye bath
Concentration
concentration
after dyeing
Exhaustion %= X100
Initial dye bath
concentration

8. Fixation: After finishing all processes of dyeing the amount of

dyes that remain with the fiber is called fixation.

Fixation = Exhaustion- Color Loss (Washing +Soaping +Other)

= 80% - 10%
=70%

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Points to be considered for Dyeing

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Points to be considered for Dyeing

1.Raw materials:
Cellulose fiber-Cotton 3.Chemicals:
Protein fiber- Silk, wool Acids
Synthetic fiber-Polyester, Alkalis
Nylon, acrylic Salts
Oxidizing agents
2.Dyes/Pigments: Reducing agents
Dyes-Water soluble
Water insoluble 4.Auxiliaries:
(Mainly organic substance) Wetting agents
Pigments- Water insoluble Levelling agents
(may organic or inorganic) Antifoaming agents
Anticreasing agents

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Points to be considered for Dyeing

5.Dyeing machines:
Jigger dyeing machines (Woven)
Winch dyeing machines (Knitted)
Jet dyeing Machines (Knitted/woven)

6.Machines for pretreatment:

Desizing m/cs
Gas singeing m/cs.

7.Utilities:
Air, Electricity, Gas, Compressed air.

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Dyeing Auxiliaries and their Functions

1. Salt/Electrolyte: Salt is used as electrolyte. Salt increase the
exhaustion rate of the dyeing process. Different types of salt are
used for different shade. The amount of salt used depends on the
shade % of the material.

2. Scouring Agent: Scouring agent is used to remove fat, waxes,

fragments of cotton etc.

3. Antifoaming Agent: Foam is formed during bleaching and dyeing

process. Anti foaming agent is used to resist foam formation. If
foam formed it reduces the dyeing uptake %.

4. Sequestering Agent: This agent is used to remove hardness of

water.

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Dyeing Auxiliaries and their Functions

5. Dispersing Agent: This agent is used for disperse dyes. We
know, disperse dye is insoluble in water and dye present in
disperse form. By applying this agent dye molecule breaks and
become soluble in the solution.

6. Neutralization Agent: This agent is used to neutral the PH of the

solution.

7. Wash/Soaping Agent: Soaping agent is used for washing. It

needs to wash dyed material to remove unfix dye from the
material.

8. Softening Agent: This agent is used to increase softness of the

material. This agent used as finishing material.

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Dyeing Auxiliaries and their Functions

9. Fixing Agent: This agent is used for fixing of dyestuff and also
remove the unfix dye.

10. Brightening Agent: This agent is used to increase the brightness

of the material. This agent increases the reflecting property of the
material.

11. Oxidizing agent: The chemical compound which provides oxygen

during chemical reaction and then itself converted to oxides. They
gain electron in a redox chemical reaction.

12. Reducing agent: The chemical compound which losses electron

during chemical reaction. It reduce other substances chemically,
especially by donating electron.

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Dyeing Auxiliaries and their Functions

13. Detergent: These are usually used in textile to clean the materials
by removing undesirable substances. These products are either
soap/synthetic detergents.

14. Lubricant: The chemical compounds used to prevent contact

between solid surfaces in relative motion in order to reduce friction,
wear, overheating and rusting.

15. Anti-foaming agents: Another type surfactant that is able to

reduce or prevent foam. Usually used in dyeing bath and in printing
paste to hinder foam generation.

16. Anti creasing agent: Usually used in dye-bath or finishing stage

to prevent creasing of fabric or garments.

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Dyeing Auxiliaries and their Functions

17. Anti pilling agent: Anti-pilling agents are used to prevent such
kind of pills formation during wearing of cloth.

18. Leveling agent: Leveling agents are used in textile coloration

process to achieve uniform dyeing over the whole substance by
controlling the rate of dyeing.

19. Retarding agent: The chemical compound that is able to retard or

control the dye uptake inside of the fiber.

20. Carrier: Carriers are relatively small organic substances that

usually have affinity for polyester. They act as catalysts to
accelerate the dye penetration into the fibre during disperse dyeing
process.

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Dyeing Auxiliaries and their Functions

21. Emulsifier: It prevents the separation of oil and water by reducing
the surface tension between them.

22. Anti-meldew Agent: It protects the substrate from micro-organism,

i.e. Bacteria, fungas.

23. Stiffing Agent: It hardens the substrate.

24. Bleaching Agent: Bleaching is carried out before dyeing or printing

operation to bring a permanent white effect on the fabric surface.
Better absorption of dyes also depends on better bleaching.

25. Wetting Agent: It accelerates wet ability of material in solution, thus

helps to easy penetration of chemicals into substrate.

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Dyeing Auxiliaries and their Functions

26. Soda Ash: It changes the pH of the fiber-reactive dye and
cellulose fiber so that the dye reacts with the fiber, making a
permanent connection that holds the dye to the fiber. It actually
activates the fiber molecules so that they can chemically attack the
dye. (It can also be used with silk, but not other protein fibers such
as wool.)

27. Caustic Soda (NaOH/Alkali): It neutralizes acidic matters,

saponified glycerides (waxes & oils) & solubilize silicates. Also acts
as a swelling agent.

28. Binders: Pigments have no affinity towards textile materials.

Binders are cross linking agent which cross-links the pigment with
fiber thus the pigment particles are sticked on the surface of fabric.

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Classification of dyes/dyestuff

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Classification of dyes/dyestuff

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Acid dye: Nylon, Silk, Wool

Direct dye: Viscose, Cotton
Vat dye: Viscose, Cotton, Silk, Wool
Disperse dye: Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic, Tri acetate, Di acetate.
Basic dye: Jute, Acrylic.
Reactive dye: Cotton, Wool, Silk, Viscose, Nylon.
Sulphur dye: Cotton, Viscose.
Mordant dye: Cotton, Wool, Silk
Pigment: Cotton, Man made fibre.
Mineral: Cotton, wool, silk.

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Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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Dyeing M/C

The M/C which is used to dye fiber, yarn or fabric in different forms is
called dyeing M/C. The heating arrangement must be controlled in
different parts of the machine according to material which will be
dyed. It should provide sufficient movement of the liquor to penetrate
uniformly into every part of the goods. The movement should not be
so vigorous that it will damage the material. All moving parts and
electric parts should be protected.

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The basic requirements of a dyeing m/c

1. It should provide sufficient movement for the liquor to penetrate

uniformly into every part of the goods.
2. The movement must not be so vigorous that it will damage fibre
mtls.
3. The m/c must be constructed of a mtl. which will withstand
prolonged boiling with acid or alkaline solutions.
4. The heating arrangements must be such that a comparatively
uniform temp. will be maintained throughout the liquor.
5. There should be some means of adding the concentrated dyestuff
solution in such a way that it becomes well diluted before it comes
into contact with goods.
6. All moving parts and electric motors should be protected
7. against the corrosive action of steam and acidic atmospheric
condition.

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Types of dyeing m/c

1. Fibre dyeing m/c.

2. Yarn dyeing m/c.

3. Fabric dyeing m/c.

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Fiber dyeing m/c: (Loose stock form)

1. Conical pan loose stock dyeing m/c.

2. Annular cage for loose stock dyeing m/c.
3. Hussong loose cotton dyeing m/c.
4. Jagen burg dyeing m/c.
5. Clauder-weldon dyeing m/c.
6. Simplex dyeing m/c.
7. Dreze dyeing m/c.
8. Ober maier dyeing m/c.
9. Long close loose cotton dyeing m/c.

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Yarn Dyeing m/c

Hank form: I. Cop dyeing m/c:
Hussong hank dyeing m/c. Mather & Platt cop dyeing m/c.
Pulsatur hank dyeing m/c. Long close cop dyeing m/c.
G.S.H hank dyeing m/c. Beaumont cop dyeing m/c.
Clauder weldon hank dyeing m/c.
II. Cheese dyeing m/c:
Package form:
Ober maier cheese dyeing m/c.
Cop dyeing m/c.
Franklin cheese dyeing m/c.
Cheese dyeing m/c.
Warp dyeing m/c. Krantz gop cheese dyeing m/c.

III. Warp dyeing m/c:

Zittau beam dyeing m/c.
Ball warp dyeing m/c.
Chain warp dyeing m/c.
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Fabric dyeing m/c

Jet dyeing m/c. Jigger dyeing m/c:
Jigger dyeing m/c. • Mather and Platt jigger dyeing
Beam dyeing m/c. m/c.
Winch dyeing m/c. • Closed jigger dyeing m/c.
High temp winch dyeing m/c. • Cyclotric high performance
Molten metal stand fast dyeing m/c. jigger.
Solvent dyeing m/c.
Pad dyeing m/c or Padding mangle Padding mangle dyeing m/c:
dyeing m/c. • Two bowl padding mangle.
• Three bowl padding mangle.
Jet dyeing m/c: • Fibre bowl padding mangle.
• Special high temperature winches. • Houbold bowl padding
• Jet dyeing m/c with additional winch. mangle.
• Partially folded jet dyeing m/c. • Zittau bowl padding mangle.
• Fully folded jet dyeing m/c.

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According to dyeing process

According to dyeing process:
1. Open dyeing m/c process.
2. Enclosed dyeing m/c
Depending on mtl. and liquor movement:
1.Mtl. moves but liquor does not circulate, e.g. Jigger, winch etc.
2.Liquor circulates but mtl. does not move, e.g. All package dyeing
m/cs.
3.Both mtl. and liquor circulate, e.g. Jet dyeing m/c.
Depending on the mtl. to be dyed:
1.Loose stock form dyeing m/c.
2.Hank form dyeing m/c.
3.Package form dyeing m/c.
4.Fabric form dyeing m/c.

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Jet dyeing m/c

Features:
 Modern discontinuous dyeing m/c.
 Used for woven i.e. synthetic fabric.
 Both dye liquor and fabrics are circulated.
 Generally of two types -1. Vertical and 2. Horizontal
 Time is required 6-8 hrs.
 Dyeing temp. 1400c.
 M:L ratio is 120:130.
 M/c capacity is normally 150 kg.
 Pressure up to 5 kg/cm2.
 Jet dyeing m/c is a complete closed vessel m/c.
 The fabric is dyed in rope form.

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Jet dyeing m/c

Working principle:
 Jet dyeing m/c based on a ventritube
which is a cylindrical pressure vessel and
centrifugal pump rotate the liquor with the
help of Jet throttle valve.
 The circular movement of the liquor carries
the fabric round with it in a totally enclosed
tubular chamber.
 The ventritube is a construction on the
passage through which the speed of flow
of the liquor must be increased.
 The primary flow is given by a centrifugal
pump but it is useful to incorporate also a
few inclined steam jets to boost the
movement of both the fabric and liquor.

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Jet dyeing m/c

Advantage:
 Uniform dyeing is possible.
 Knitted fabric can be dyed.
 M:L ration is very small and easily adjustable.
 No risk of long line.
 Better dyeing is possible than other discontinuous dyeing.
 Easy to maintain uniform temp. through out the m/c.

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Jet dyeing m/c

Disadvantage:
 Elongation of the fabric due to the tension.
 Crease of fabric may be damaged.
 Discontinuous process.
 Patchiness occurs due to high rate dye and for this, color
variation to fabric length.
 Streakiness occurs due to insufficient liquor to fabric rope and
for this color variation to fabric width.
 Slight and dark mark is found to the fabric for relux of shrinkage
fabric post processing.

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Jigger dyeing m/c

Features:
 Discontinuous dyeing m/c.
 Fabric is dyed in open width in uniform tension.
 Fabric moves but liquor does not circulate.
 M:L is 1:7 to 1:10
 In normal atmospheric pressure and under 1000c, fabric can be dyed.
 Time is required 4-10 hrs for dyeing.
 500-1000 yds fabric can be dyed.
 Fabric transport speed is 200-800m/hr.
 It is used specially for woven fabrics.
 Rollers rotate clockwise and
anti clockwise.

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Jigger dyeing m/c

Working principle:
 The jigger consists of a trough fitted with rollers known as draw
rollers arranged one along either side and supported in metal
bearings. Guide rollers and stream line are provided in the trough.

 The mtl./Fabric is wound, in open width, over rollers standing above a

shallow trough containing the dye liquor.

 The rollers, by rotating in clockwise and anticlockwise directions

alternately, pull the fabric backward and forward through the dye
liquor, completely immersion being ensured by guide rollers at the
bottom of the trough.

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Jigger dyeing m/c

 The draw roller from which the fabric is taken out is called “let-off”
roller while the other is called “take up” roller.

 When all the fabric passes through liquor from one roller to the
other, the passage is called an end or one turn. A no. of ends are
given, during which time the fabric passes to and fro and passes
through the dye solution a no. of times.

 The no. of ends given depends on several factors, including the size
of roll or batch of fabric.

 The time required for one end usually 10 to 15 mins and on the
depth of shade being dyed.

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Jigger dyeing m/c

Advantage:
 High speed dyeing m/c.
 Low M:L ratio.
 Better dye penetration.
 No crease marks in fabric.
 Economical dyeing process.
 Used for cotton fabrics specially woven fabric.

Disadvantage:
 Uneven dyeing in fabric selvedge.
 Weak fabric may be damaged due to more tension.
 Dyeing room becomes dirty and hazard.
 Heat may be lost due to roller.
 Fabric is out of liquor in dyeing tank.
 Discontinuous process.

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Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
K.Z.M. Abdul Motaleb

6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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Direct Dyes

An anionic dye which have substantivity for

cellulosic fibers, normally applied from an
aqueous dye bath containing an electrolyte is
known as direct dye.

Direct Dye is a class of dyestuffs that are applied directly to the substrate
in a neutral or alkaline bath. They produce full shades on cotton and
linen without mordanting and can also be applied to rayon, silk, and wool.

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Why Direct Dye is So Called?

These dyes are anionic and having substantivity for all type of cellulosic
fibers such as cotton, viscose, rayon etc. These dyes have strong affinity
towards the fiber which can be applied directly on the fiber and which do
not need any assistance. These dyes have affinity for cellulose and
therefore they are also substantive dyes. So, this dye is so called.

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Examples of direct dye

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Properties of Direct Dyes

 It is soluble in water.
 It has sodium salt of sulphuric acid or carboxylic acid.
 It has strong affinity to cellulose fiber.
 Protein fiber can be dyed with this dye.
 Comparatively cheap.
 Easily diffusible into fiber.
 Wash fastness is not so good.

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Classification of direct dye

Class – A Class – B Class – C

(Self leveling) (Salt controllable) (Temperature
controllable)
 Dyes migrate well.  Poor leveling power.
 High leveling  Dye exhaustion  These are not
power. controlled by salt self leveling.
 They may dye addition.  Highly sensitive
unevenly at first  If these dyes are not to salt.
but further boiling taken up uniformly  The exhaustion
will bring about in the initial stages, of these dyes is
even distribution. It is extremely control by
difficult to correct temperature.
the levelness.

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Chemistry involved for dyeing of
cotton fabric with direct dye
The Dyeing mechanism for the application of direct dyes to cellulose
fiber involves the adsorption, diffusion, and migration over fiber.
Several factors persuade the dyeing mechanism; however, the most
important is the cellulose fiber structure, morphology and the use of
electrolytes.

When the cellulose fiber is immersed into water the amorphous regions
of the fiber swell to produce small pores in order of 20-100A
(Angstrom)Units.

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Chemistry involved for dyeing of
cotton fabric with direct dye
The smaller size of molecules diffuses into the fiber structure through
this pores. The addition of electrolytes assists the diffusion and
exhaustion of direct dye anionic by neutralizing the negative surface
charge of cellulosic fibers.

It facilitates the movement of dye anions from the dye-in-solution to

dye-in-fiber. Then the dye anions become affixed to the cellulosic fiber
through hydrogen bonding and vander waals forces. An addition of
alkali, Usually sodium carbonate may be made with acid sensitive direct
dyes to enhance the solubilization.

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Role of electrolyte during dyeing of
cotton fabric with direct dye
Cotton in water: Negative surface potential.
Anionic dyes dissolved in water: Negative charge due to ionization of water
solubilizing –SO3Na groups.

Due to similar charges: Repulsion between dye and fiber structure.

For the dye enter into the fiber: Necessary to reduce the (-) ve charge of fiber
structure.
It is achieved by addition of electrolyte. Electrolyte dissociate in water, release (+)
Ve charge Na+.
NaCl Na+ + Cl-

Na+ accumulate at the (-Ve) charges of fiber surface Neutralize the (-Ve)
surface potential of fiber Facilitate (-Ve) dye molecule adsorption on fiber.

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Application of Direct Dye on Cotton Fabric

Typical Recipe

1. Dyestuff – 2%
2. Na2CO3 – 2-3%
3. Wetting Agent – 1%
4. NaCl/Common Salt – 10%
5. M:L – 1:20
6. Temperature – 800-900 C
7. Time – 1-1.5 hrs

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Dyeing process

Dye Solution preparation:

1. Mix dye with normal water and make dye paste; then pour hot water
to dissolve the dye properly and ensure uniform bath concentration.
2. The dye bath is set at 400C with substrate and required water level.
3. Add wetting agent, sequestering agent, leveling agent, and other
auxiliaries and run time 5 min. Dyeing is continued for 60 minutes at
1000 C.
4. Drop the bath, rinse and carry out after-treatment process to
improve wet fastness.

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After-treatment

The dyed material is carried out at 700C for 30 minutes in a bath

containing 1 to 3% of acetic acid (30%) and 1-3% of CuSO4 according
to the depth of shade. It improves light and wash fastness.

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Stripping

If the textile goods become uneven dyeing and unsuitable for

using, the color has to be distorted. The process is called
stripping.

The color can usually be removed by boiling with sodium

hydrosulphite, by bleaching with a solution of sodium hypochlorite
containing 1 to 2 gm per litre of available chlorine, or by boiling
with 1 to 2 percent of sodium chlorite which has been brought
to a PH between 3 to 4 or acetic acid.

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Color fastness properties

Generally these dyes are used where high wash fastness

is not required.

Wash Fastness: Poor unless treated with suitable dye

fixing agent and/or fastness improving finishing agent.
Light Fastness: Good
Rubbing Fastness: Moderate to Good
Chemical Wash Fastness: Poor

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Identification of Direct Dye

1. At first we take 5 gm of colored sample which is provided by the

buyer.
2. Then we have to take a test tube with soap or detergent liquor.
3. Then we will also take a white fabric and put both fabrics in the test
tube. Then we have to heat it up to boiling point with a burner.
4. After sometimes we can see that the colored sample is colorless
and the white fabric becomes colorful. This may only happened for
direct dye.

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Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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Acid Dyes
Acid dyes consists of the sodium salts of sulphonic acids of all kinds.
They contain sulphonic acid group. These increase the solubility in
water, give the dye molecules a positive charge.

In an acidic solution, the –NH2 functionalities of the fiber are

propogated to give a positive charge:-NH3+.. This charge interacts with
the negative dye charge, allowing the formation of ionic interactions.

As well as this, Van-der-wall bonds, are formed between dye and fiber.
First acid dye Alkali Blue was introduced by Nicholson in 1862. Acid
dyes produce a wide range of brilliant shades.

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Why so called?
Acid dyes are so called because, in first place, the dyeing process is
carried out in an acidic aqueous solution containing mineral and organic
acid, and secondly they were nearly all sodium salts of organic acids
and the anion is the active colored component.

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Properties of Acid Dyes

 These dyes are anionic in nature.

 These dyes are suitable for wool, silk, polyamide and modified
acrylics.
 These are applied from a strongly acidic to neutral pH bath.
 These dyes have no affinity for cotton cellulose’s , hence not
suitable for cellulosic.
 These dyes combine with the fiber by hydrogen bonds, vander
waals forces or through ionic linkages.

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Chemical Structure of Acid Dyes

These dyes are normally very complex in structure but have large
aromatic molecules, having a sulphonyl or amino group which makes
them soluble in water. Most of the acid dyes belong to following three
main structural molecules,

1.Anthraquinon type
2.Azo dye type
3.Triphenylmethane type

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Chemical Structure of Acid Dyes

1. Anthraquinone type: Many blue dyes have this structure as their

basic shape. The structure predominates in the Leveling class of acid
dye.

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Chemical Structure of Acid Dyes

2. Azo dyes: The structure of azo dyes is based on azobenzene, Ph-

N=N-Ph. Officially, Azo dyes are a separate class of dyes primarily
used in on cellulose fibers such as cotton and rayon, but many acid
dyes have a similar structure; most give different shades of red.

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Chemical Structure of Acid Dyes

3. Triphenylmethane dyes: Acid dyes having structures related to

triphenylmethane predominate in the milling class of dye. There
are many yellow and green dyes commercially applied to fibers
that are related to triphenylmethane.

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Some trade names of acid dyes

Brand name Manufacturer Origin

Acilan Bayer Germany

Lurazol BASF Germany

Benzy Ciba Switzweland

Novamin ACNA Italy

Supracid Fracolor France

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Classification of Acid Dyes

1. Based on application medium

2. Based on leveling properties
3. Based on dyeing characteristics

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1. Based on Application Medium

1. Neutral acid dyes: These are supra milling or fast acid dyes, having
medium to good wet fastness properties, some of the dyes have poor
light fastness in pale shades. Many of the dyes are used as self
shades only. These are applied to the fiber in a weakly acid or
neutral pH.

2. Weak acid dyes: These dyes belong to the milling class of dyes.
These dyes have good fastness properties but light fastness is
moderate to poor.

3. Strong acid dyes: These dyes are applied in a strongly acidic

medium and also called leveling dyes, however there wet fastness
properties are a limitation. These dyes are very good to produce the
combination shades.

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2. Based on leveling properties

1. Acid dyes with Good leveling characteristics: This type of acid
dye is responsible for their good leveling characteristics. As the dye
molecules have less attraction for the fibre they will migrate only
slowly into the polymer systems of wool or nylon fibres. However to
obtain sufficient substantive and to ensure, adequate exhausting
agent (sulphuric acid) is added to the dye liquor, their lack of
substantive is evidence by their poor wash fastness. However the
light fastness is very good to excellent.

2. Acid dyes with average leveling characteristics: The moderate

substantive of this type of acid dye is responsible for average
leveling characteristics. To obtain sufficient substantive and to and
ensure it, adequate exhausting agent, a week acid (Acetic acid or
Formic acid) is added to the dye both. The washing fastness of these
dyes is fair, whilst their light – fastness is good to very good.

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Continue…

3. Acid dyes with poor leveling characteristics

These dyes are also known as fast acid dyes, and milling dyes or
Natural dyeing acid dyeing acid dyes. They have the best substantive of
all the acid dyes, but have relatively poor leveling characteristics. Unless
care is taken during, their relatively good substantive for the fibre may
result in too rapid uptake and consequently unleveled dyeing.

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3. Based on Dyeing Characteristics

Acid dyes are commonly classified according to their dyeing behavior,
especially in relation to the dyeing pH, their migration ability during
dyeing and their washing fastness. The molecular weight and the degree
of sulphonation of the dye molecule determine these dyeing
characteristics. The original classification of this type, based on their
behavior in wool dyeing, is as follows:
1. Level dyeing or equalizing acid dyes;
2. Fast acid dyes;
3. Milling acid dyes;
4. Super-milling acid dyes.

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Mechanism of dyeing with acid dyes

Dissolution of dyes in aqueous solvent, produces a colored anion,

The protein and polyamide fibers produce cationic sites in water under
acidic conditions, as the acidity of the solution is increased more cationic
sites are produced under these strongly acidic conditions. These cationic
sites are thus available for the acid dye anions to combine with through
hydrogen bonding, vander waals forces or ionic bonding. These linkages
are strong enough, and thus dyeing produced are fast.

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Dyeing mechanism of protein and
polyamide fiber with acid dyes
Acid dye consists of sodium salts of sulphonic acids of all kinds. They
are applied in presence of an organic or inorganic acid in the dye bath.
These groups have a dual role.

Firstly, they provide solubility in water, the medium from which the dyes
are applied to the fibre.

Secondly, they ensure that the dyes carry a negative charge (i.e. they
are anionic). When acid conditions are used in the dyeing process, the
protein molecules acquire a positive charge. This is due to mainly
protonation of the amino (—NH2) groups on the amino acid side-chains,
to give NH3+ groups to the suppression of the ionisation of the carboxylic
acid groups.

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Dyeing mechanism of protein and
polyamide fiber with acid dyes
The positive charge on the polymer attracts the acid dye anions by
ionic forces, and these displace the counter-anions within the fiber by
an ion exchange process As well as these ionic forces of attraction, van
der Waals’ forces, dipolar forces and hydrogen bonding between
appropriate functionality of the dye and fiber molecules may also play a
part in the acid-dyeing of
protein fibers.

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Application of Acid Dyes on Wool

Electrolyte in the acid dye bath acts as a retarding agent because of

chlorides ions attracted by the positive sites at the fiber and in the
competition between. Addition of acid acts as a n exhausting agent,
because strongly acidic conditions makes more cationic sites available
and thus available dye anions got combined with these.

Dyeing temperature
The dyeing is generally carried out at boiling temperature for 30- 60
minutes depending upon the depth of the shade and dyestuffs used.

Dyeing leveling agents

In the case dyeing with acid dyes , mainly cationic agents such as
ethoxylated fatty amines are used as leveling agents.

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Application of Acid Dyes on Wool

Wool dyeing method with acid dyes

At A set bath at 50° with:
4% Sulphuric Acid (96%)
5% Glaubers Salt anhydrous,
pH 2.5 to 3.5
At B add required amount to dyestuff.

At C add 2% Sulphuric Acid (96%) or 2% Formic Acid (85%). Thoroughly

rinse after dyeing to remove loose color.

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Fastness Properties of Acid Dyes

The wet and light fastness properties of the acid dyes varies from poor
to excellent, depending upon the molecular structure of the dyes.

The fastness properties as per the category are as follows:

Neutral acid dyes: since these dyes have very good leveling and
migration properties, and have a low affinity for the fiber, therefore the
wet fastness properties of this class are generally poor.

Weak acid dyes or half milling dyes: These dyes have a medium to
good affinity for the fiber and are generally applied in a weakly acidic
bath, shows medium to good wet fastness properties.

Strong acid dyes or super milling dyes: These dyes have poor
exhaustion properties, therefore applied under very strong acidic
condition , exhibit good fastness properties.

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Stripping of acid dye

Removal of color from the fabric is called stripping. The color of acid

dyed fabric can be stripped by boiling the dyed material with 0.5%

ammonia or 2% pyridine.

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Difference between acid dye and direct dye

Although direct dyes often have similar structures to acid dyes, they
generally have higher molecular weights and extended planar molecular
structures.

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Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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Basic Dyes

Basic dyes are called so since they are

salts of organic bases. Basic dyes are
also called cationic dyes because in
solution the basic dye molecule ionizes,
causing its colored component to
become an action of positively charged
radical. Basic dyes are used for dyeing
wool, silk, and acrylic and mod-acrylic
fibers.

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PROPERTIES OF BASIC DYES

1. The outstanding characteristics of the basic are brilliance and

intensity of their colors.
2. The bright colors achieved from basic dyes do not usually occur
with other dye classes.
3. Many of the basic dyes are sparingly soluble in water.
4. The addition of glacial acetic acid helps to dissolve the basic dye
quickly in water.
5. Basic dyes are readily soluble in alcohol or mentholated spirit.
6. The basic dyes are poor fastness to light and vary with regard to
washing fastness from poor to moderate.

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Continue…
8. An important property of basic dyes is that they will combine with
tannic acid to form an insoluble compound provided mineral acid is
absent.
9. The basic dyestuff will combine with direct or Sulphur or some acid
dyestuffs. So they cannot be used together in the same bath.
10. Basic dyes can be removed from the material by boiling it with
dilute acetic acid or hydrochloric acid.
11. Basic dyes can be removed from the material by boiling it with
dilute acetic acid or hydrochloric acid.

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Classification of basic dyes

Group-1: Group-2:
Derivatives of diphenylamine, they Derivatives of triphenyl methane
are Auramine e.g.- Malachite Green

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Classification
cont…..

Group-3: Group-4:
Derivatives of thiazine e.g.- Basics dye which containing
Methylene Oxazine group. e.g.
Meldola Blue.

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Mechanism of basic dyes

The mechanism of dyeing cationic dye able acrylic fibers with cationic
dyes may be divided into three steps:

1. The colored cations of the ionized dye are on the acrylic fiber
surface, the rate of adsorption, depending on the concentration of
the dye in the external dyebath.

2. The adsorbed dye cation diffuse in the interion of the fiber, the rate
of diffusion being determined by the temperature.

3. The cations are attracted and retained by the anionic sites in the
fiber substance, by strong electrostatic attraction forces, thereby
imparting very good washing fastness to the resulting dyeing.

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Why basic dye is more suitable for
acrylic fiber?
Dyeing of natural fibers with cationic dyes invariably have poor fastness
to light. In direct contrast to this, acrylic fibers dyed with cationic dyes
exhibit fairly good light fastness, and good fastness to washing.

The improved resistance to fading is because of the limited access of

water and oxygen into the more hydrophobic acrylic fibers. Access of
both water and oxygen enhance the rate of color fading on exposure to
light. Good washing fastness of acrylic materials dyed with cationic
dyes.

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Dyeing mechanism of acrylic with
basic dye
 Radical polymerization of acrylonitrile in aqueous solution, using
sodium persulphate (Na2S2O8) and bisulphite (NaHSO3) as initiators,
gives poly-acrylonitrile (PAN) with sulphate (SO4–) and sulphonate
(SO3–) end group.
 The anionic sites in the polymer arising from the sulphonate and
sulphate end groups that can be dyed by an ion exchange
mechanism using cationic dyes.
 Thus Cationic dye provide affinity for the acrylic fibres as a result of
ionic attraction between the dye cations and the anionic groups (—
SO3- & —CO2-) which are present in the acrylic fibre polymer
molecules.

PAN-SO3- Na++ Dye+ = PAN -SO3- Dye+ +Na+

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Dyeing process of acrylic fiber with
basic dye
1. Preparation of acrylic material
2. Recipe
3. Preparation of dye bath
4. Process curve
5. Procedure
6. After treatment

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1. Preparation of acrylic material

The preparation of acrylic fiber materials may involve desizing of woven

materials, scouring and bleaching. Scouring with weakly alkaline
solutions of ammonia or trisodium pyrophosphate (Na3HP2O7) is
common.

A non-ionic detergent is essential. Bleaching is possible with sodium

chlorite (NaClO2) and formic acid or brightening with a fluorescent
whitening agent.

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Recipe:
1. Wetting agent=1g/l
2. Sequestering agent=1g/l
3. Cationic dye=1%owf
4. Acetic acid=3g/l
5. Sodium acetate=0.5g/l
6. pH=4.5-5.5
7. Time=2 hours
8. M:L= 1:20
9. Temperature=95˚C

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Preparation of dye bath

The dye powder is usually pasted with acetic acid and then mixed with
boiling water.
Process curve:

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Procedure:
1. The dye bath is set at 40˚C. Then water and acrylic is added and
temperature is raised at 75˚C at 1.5 ˚C/min. Then dye and acetic
acid is added and temperature is raised at 95˚C at a rate of
0.5˚C/min.

2. Then dyeing is carried out for 1.50 hours. The dye bath temperature
is first slowly reduced to below 80˚C to avoid formation of any crack
marks, creases.

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After treatment:
After dyeing is complete, the bath is slowly cooled to 50–60°C to avoid
some problems. Rapid cooling by addition of cold water to the dye bath
can be disastrous as it causes immediate setting of creases in the
goods.

The material is finally rinsed, and possibly given a mild scour with a non-
ionic detergent and a little acetic acid plus a softening agent

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Jute dyeing with basic dyes

Since the jute fibers have lignocellulose and uric acid, they need not
mordanting during dyeing with basic dyes but a small amount acetic acid
is added in the dye bath so that the dye completely dissolves and
penetration within the fiber and removes the alkalinity of water.

Typical Dyeing Recipe:

Basic dye = 2% OWF.
Acetic acid = 3% OWF.
M: L ratio = 1:20
Time = 1hour.
Temperature = 100ºC.

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Jute dyeing with basic dyes

Dyeing procedure:
1. At first, a paste is made with basic dye and acetic acid and with
the addition of water.
2. The dye bath is set at 40ºC and adds the dye solution to the dye
bath.
3. Then the sample is kept to the dye bath and temperature is raised
at 80-100ºC.
4. The dyeing is performed at this temperature for 1 hour.
5. After dyeing the dyed sample is squeezed after washing and then
drying.

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Jute dyeing with basic dyes

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Jute dyeing with basic dyes

 Basic dyes can be used to dye many different fibers, including

natural fibers such as wool, silk, and cotton, but, when used on
natural fibers, they are very poorly lightfast: they tend to fade very
quickly when exposed to light. Since the introduction of many
superior dyes for natural fibers, basic dyes are no longer much
used for dyeing them because of the light fastness problem.

 However, basic dyes continue to be very important in the textile

industry for dyeing acrylic fibers. Their light fastness on acrylic fiber
is far better than on natural fibers.

 Among all the vegetable fibers, jute fiber has directly affinity for
basic dyes.

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Advantages of basic dyes

1. High Tinctorial strength

2. Moderate substantivity
3. Relatively economical
4. Wide shade range includes some of the most brilliant synthetic dyes
5. Shows good brightness

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Disadvantages of basic dyes

1. Poor shade stability

2. High acid content
3. Colored backwaters
4. Very poor lightfastness
5. Preferential dyeing

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Modified basic dyes

These dyes, generally based on the chemistry of basic dyes, have

longer molecular structures than traditional basic dyes, and thus have
significantly improved properties.

Though still cationic in nature, modified basic dyes exhibit improved

fiber coverage and substantivity on many furnishes, making them ideal
for dyeing applications. Lightfastness is also improved considerably
over traditional basic dye.

Key advantages over conventional basic dyes:-

Excellent substantivity
Better Lightfastness
Covers all fibers
Clear backwaters

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Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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Vat Dyes
The word ‘Vat’ means Vessel. The dye takes their generic name from
vatting. The vat dyes are naturally obtained coloring matter from
the ancient time and kept into wooden vat and make solubilize in
vat by the process of fermentation—so it is called vat dye. The vat
dyes are insoluble and cannot be used directly and requires
vatting. Among all the dyes, it has the best fastness properties.

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Why vat dyes are so called?

Vat is referred as a wooden vessel. In ancient time, vat dyes were

naturally obtained from coloring matter and were made solubilized by
fermentation keeping them in the vat. So it is called vat dye.

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Properties of vat dyes

 Vat dye is water insoluble and can’t be applied directly on

textile mtl.
 Mainly use for cellulose fibre dyeing but in protein fibre dyeing
pH should be controlled.
 Rubbing fastness is not good
 Various shade is found.
 Dyeing process is difficult.
 Costly.
 Washing fastness of vat dye is very good with rating 4-5.

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Classification of vat dyes

On the basis of Chemical structure mainly two types of vat dyes

a) The indigoids containing the chromophore and usually derivatives of
Indigotin (1) or Thioindigo (2)

b) The anthraquinone vat dyes derived basically from anthraquinone

(3),

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Some trade names of vat dyes

Brand name Manufacturer Origin

Indanthrene BASF Germany

Cibanone Ciba Switzerland

Romanthrene ACNA Italy

Solanthrene Francolor France

Navinon Indian dyestuff Ind. Ltd India

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Application of vat dyes

1. Vat dyes are used in cotton dyeing where high wash and boil
fastness is required.
2. Because of high alkali concentration in the dye bath, pure vat dyes
can not be used on animal fibers (wool, silk & various hairs).
3. Bright red is absent in vat dye range.
4. In case of solubilized vat dyes, the presence of alkali is not
required, so they can be used for dyeing of animal fibers.

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Stages/Chemistry/Mechanism of dyeing
with vat dyes
I) Aqueous dispersion: The insoluble vat dyes, in this stage, is dispersed
in water.
II) Vatting: In this stage, insoluble vat dye is reduced to produce weak
acidic leuco form. Sodium hydro sulphite used as a reducing agent. Again
salt formation by neutralising their hydroxide to give a water soluble
product. Sodium Hydroxido is used as a solubilising agent. The reaction of
vatting is given bellow:

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Stages/Chemistry/Mechanism of dyeing
with vat dyes
III) Dye absorption: The vatted dye- molecules are substantive to the cellulose
material. To achieve adequate exhaustion, an electrolyte is added to the
dye liquor and temp may be increased from 200 to 600C. In this stage,
the textile material must be immersed in dye liquor to prevent oxidation
of leuco compound.

IV) Re-oxidation of vat dye: In this stage, the leuco form of vat dye is
oxidized and converted to its original color and insoluble form. This
oxidation is brought about by atmospheric oxygen. The reaction as follows:

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Stages/Chemistry/Mechanism of dyeing
with vat dyes
V) Soaping of vat dye: During the previous stage some
insoluble vat dye may be deposited on the surface of the textile
material. This has to be removed to prevent poor rub-fastness as
well as shade changing. By soaping off, this surface dye can be
removed.

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General Methods of dyeing

Generally vat dyes are dyed by the following methods-
I). IN (Normal dyeing group)
II). IW (Worm dyeing group)
III). IK (Cold dyeing group)
IV). IN special (Special dyeing group)

Vatting and dyeing condition in different Method

Vetting Dyeing NaOH Sodium hydro Nacl

Group
temp.( 0C) temp. (0 C) (gm/l) sulphite (gm/L) (gm/L)
IN 50-600 50-600 1.5-10 1.5-10 No
IW 40-500 40-500 0.4-0.45 0.4-6.25 3-25
IK 500 20-300 0.4-3 0.4-4.5 6.25-50
IN special 60⁰ 80⁰ 5-15 2-10 No

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Cotton fabric dyeing with vat dyes by pad-steam
Method: Or Continuous Method

Recipe
Dyestuff--------2-3%
Dispersing agent---1-2%
Caustic soda-------1-2%
Sodium hydro sulphite---2-3%
Temperature-------600C
Dyeing chamber temp----55-650C
Steam fixation---30-60s at 102-1050C
M: L---1:20

Process:
 Pad steam process is a continuous process of vat dyeing. Pad steam
method is applied when large quantity of fabric is to be dyed by vat
dye. In this method, the fabric is at first pigment padded.

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Cotton fabric dyeing with vat dyes by pad-steam
Method: Or Continuous Method

 Then it is dried and then again padded with sodium hydroxide

and hydrosulphite. Here dye is reduced by solubilising.
 Then for the fixation of dye on fabric, the fabric is passed
through the steam chamber for about 30-60s
 The fabric is applied soap wash, ringing and dry wash one after
another.

Coloration
 142

Stripping of vat dyes

It is a process by which excess colour or dye is removed from the
fabric by chemical process with the help of sodium hydrosulphite
etc. It is not easy to remove colour from vat dyed mtls. Stripping
is classified 3 steps in vat dyes-

1. The dyes which used as stripping agent mainly dispersing

agent Example- Celedon Green, Blue Violet etc.

2. The dyes which parts of dispersing agents and some colors

become part of fibre e.g. Orange 6 R.

3. The colors which main mtl. is leveling agent and can be

removed all the colors. e.g. Yellow 5 G.

Coloration
 143

Faults found in vat dyeing

1. Dark Selvedge: If over oxidation occurs during vat dyeing in

Jigger M/C, dark selvedge creates. This fault can be removed
by the arrangement of pouring Caustic-Hydrose solution in both
selvedges during dyeing.

2. Light spots: this fault founds if faults in pretreatment of fabric i.e.

Bleaching, mercerizing, desizing.

3. Deep spots: Deep spots happen due to uneven oxidation and

reducing which can be removed by stripping method.

4. Uneven colour: Faulty weaving, uneven tension of warp and

weft and faulty mercerizing creates uneven colour.

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 144

Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

Coloration
 145

DEFINITION OF PRINTING

Printing is the method of localized application of dyes or pigments that

produce particular color effect on fabric according to design. The
difference of this process with dyeing is the overall/throughout coloration
where as printing is only localized coloration.

Coloration
 146

Continue…
 In printing, wooden blocks,
stencils , engraved plates,
rollers, or silk screens can be
used to place colours on the
fabric.

 In properly printed fabrics the

colour is bonded with the fibre,
so as to resist washing and
friction.

 Colorants used in printing contain dyes thickened to prevent the colour

from spreading by capillary attraction beyond the limits of the pattern or
design.

Coloration
 147

Flow Chart of Textile Printing

Grey textiles / Raw material Printing (with a certain style

and method)
Pretreatment for dyeing / ↓
printing Drying of the printed fabric (in
↓ the drier)
Drying ↓
Steaming of the printed fabric
↓
(To transfer dye into fiber, 100-
Winding/Beaming 102 ̊ C, 15 min in a steamer)
↓ ↓
Preparation of printing After treatment (Soaping of
paste washing)

Coloration
 148

DIFFERENCES

SL DYEING PRINTING

01 In case of dyeing, dyes are applied in In case of printing, dyes are applied in the
the whole fabric with equal quantity. definite parts of fabric for producing
design.
02 During batch application, more time Less time required than dyeing
required. application.
03 Here, liquor ratio is higher. Less liquor ratio than dyeing application.

04 Precise temperature is needed. Precise temperature is not needed.

05 Curing or steaming process is not Curing or steaming process is needed for

needed here. printing application.

Coloration
 149

Continue…

SL DYEING PRINTING

06 Thickener is not used here. Thickener is widely used here.

07 Not expensive. Expensive.

08 Here, color penetrates throughout Here, color is applied only in the fabric
the fabric. surface.
09 Fabric becomes soft after dyeing Printed fabrics will be harsh and hard
application. after applying printing application.
10 The quantity of water is required Less amount of water is needed here.
more here.

Coloration
 150

Continue…

SL DYEING PRINTING

11 Only one dye is used in case of Here, one or more dye is used during the
dyeing application. application of printing.
12 Half bleaching is enough for fabric Full bleaching with optical whitener is
preparation before applying dyeing needed in case of printing application.
application.
13 Dye solution concentration is less in Printing paste concentration is higher in
dye bath. printing.
14 Fibres, yarn and fabrics are dyed by Normally, printing is done on fabric
applying dyeing application. surface
15 Precise design is not needed here. Here, precise design is must needed.

Coloration
 151

A Typical Printing Process Steps

1. Color paste preparation
when printing textiles, the dye or pigment is not in an
aqueous liquor, instead, it is usually finely dispersed in a
printing paste, in high concentration.

2. Textile Printing
The dye or pigment paste is applied to the substrate using
different techniques.

Coloration
 152

Continue…

3. Fixation
Immediately after printing, the fabric is dried and then the
prints are fixed mainly with steam or hot air (for pigments).
Note that intermediate drying is not carried out when
printing carpets (too much energy would be needed for
removing the highly viscous liquor).

4. After-Treatment
This final operation consists in washing and drying the
fabric (it is not necessary when printing with pigments or
with other particular techniques such as transfer printing).

Coloration
 153

Essential Ingredients of Printing Paste

The ingredients found in paste formulations includes:

Dyes or pigments, thickeners, sequestering agents, dispersing or

suspending agents (surfactants), water-retaining agents (humectants),
defoamers, catalysts, and hand modifiers.

In addition to the ingredients,

pigments require a binder or resin
system to fix the pigment and may
include adhesion promoters. For
blended fabrics pigments are used,
which are not dyes but are colored
particles glued to the surface of the
fabrics.

Coloration
 154

Continue…

Printing pastes are made up of four main

components:
The coloring matter used (dyes or pigments)
The binding agent
The solvent
The auxiliaries

Coloration
 155

Coloring Matter
Either dyestuffs or pigments. Dyes are in solution and become
chemically or physically incorporated into the individual fibers.
The dyes used for printing mostly include vat, reactive and disperse
colors which have good fastness properties.

Pigments are largely insoluble. The pigmented printing paste must

physically bind with the fabric, so must contain a resin, which holds the
pigment in place on top of the fabric.

Coloration
 156

Binder
 Binders are responsible for the fastness of the pigment prints during
use. The most important fastnesses are wash fastness, chemical
cleaning fastness and friction fastness.

 Binders are “self-crosslinking polymers”

mainly on acrylates, butadiene and vinyl
acetate, with solid contents of approx.. 40 -
50%.

 Binders made of natural wood resin, wax

stand linseed or safflower oils and
chitosan, when using chitosan as a binder,
and no solvent is necessary.

Coloration
 157

Solvents
Usually added in the formulation of the thickeners.

 Type of paste (emulsion or plastisol) and thickening agent determines

the type of solvent needed.
 White spirit is commonly used organic solvent.
 The organic solvent concentration in print pastes may vary from 0 -
60% , with no consistent ration of organic solvent to water.

Coloration
158

Auxiliaries

Generally, the auxiliaries used for printing are the same as those
used in dyeing with a dye bath. These types of auxiliaries include:

1. Thickener
2. Wetting Agent
3. De-foaming Agent
4. Acid / Alkali
5. Oxidizing / Reducing Agent
6. Hygroscopic Agent
7. Dispersing Agent
8. Preservatives

Coloration
 159

Thickener (Auxiliaries)

 To make viscous paste of dyes in water, a thickener is used.

 Thickeners used depends on the printing technique and fabric and
dyestuff used.

 Thickening agents are starch derivatives,

flour, gum Senegal and gum arabic and
albumin and sodium alginate.

 Starch used to be the most preferred of all

the thickenings, but nowadays gums or
alginates derived from seaweed is
preferred as they allow better penetration
of color and are easier to wash out.

Coloration
 160

Other Auxiliaries
 Wetting agent: It helps in obtaining a smooth paste of dyes without
any lumps, for example: TRO and ethylene oxide condensator.
 De-foaming agent: Formation of foam during print paste preparation
and application is quite common but should be avoided. Foam may
produce specky dyeing. The antifoaming agents help in foam
generation. E.g. Silicon compounds, organic & inorganic esters,
aliphatic esters, etc.
 Oxidizing or reducing agent: They are used in printing with
solubilized vat colors and also in discharge and resist printing. E.g.
sodium chlorate, H2O2, thiourea dioxide, tin (II) chloride.

Coloration
 161

Continue…
 Acid or alkali: Depending on the types of dyes used in printing, acid
or alkali is used in the print paste. An acid liberating salt is commonly
used, For example ammonium chloride and diammonium hydrogen
phosphate. For reactive printing on cotton, sodium carbonate or
sodium bicarbonate are used.

 Hygroscopic agents: The function of hygroscopic agents is to take

up sufficient amount of water (moisture) during steaming to give
mobility to the dyes to move into the fibre. e.g. Urea and Glycerin.

 Dispersing agent: Dispersing agents are necessary in the print paste

to prevent aggregation of the dyestuff in the highly concentrated
pastes. e.g. Diethylene glycol.

 Preservatives: Used to prevent the action of bacteria and fungus to

make it dilute. e.g. Salicylic acid.
Coloration
 162

Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

Coloration
Methods For Textile Printing
163

1. Block printing
2. Spray printing
3. Screen printing
4. Engraved roller printing
5. Transfer printing
6. Batik printing and
7. Photographic printing.

Coloration
Block Printing
164

Block printing, like any other

technique of applying colour in
the form of design on to the
fabric, involves the use of a
block, into which the design has
been carved or cut. This carved
design is transferred by pressing
the block on to the fabric. This
is perhaps the slowest process
of all the textile printing
techniques.

Coloration
Historical Background
165

In the 8th Century, wooden

blocks were generally used for
printing on paper and later on
they were used for printing on
textile materials. The Chinese
and the Egyptians were the
pioneers in using the wooden
blocks for printing. This
process was used in Italy in
the 19th century from where
it spread to the great printing
centres of Europe.

Coloration
Features of Block Printing
166

• It yields very low production.

• The cost of set up is very less.
• Very skilled personnel is required to do such printing.
• The cost of making a design is very less, however
• durability of design is very low, being defined by durability of
block, usually made of wood.
• The variety of designs is dictated by the skill of the
woodworker who carves those designs.
• The size of design pattern repeat can be larger.
• There is a limitation of width of the fabric- which is dictated
by the width of the table.

Coloration
Types of Blocks
167

There are several types of blocks used for block printing, with
special characteristics of their own. Some of these are:-

 Wooden blocks
 Linoleum blocks
 Matchstick blocks
 Blocks made of household articles like glass, bottle top and
vegetable blocks e.g. potato, lady’s finger, and capsicum.
 Metal blocks

Coloration
 Block Making
168

• Blocks are normally made of

seasoned teak wood by trained
craftsmen.
• The underside of the block has
the design hand carved on it by
the block maker. Each block has
a wooden handle and two to
three cylindrical holes drilled
into the block for free air
passage and also to allow
release of excess printing paste.
• The new blocks are soaked in oil
for 10-15 days to soften the
grains in the timber.

Coloration
Printing Blocks
169

Coloration
Printing Process
170

• The fabric to be printed is washed free of starch and soft

bleached if the natural gray of the fabric is not desired.
• If the borders are to be made, then the cloth at the border
area are tied then dyed before printing.
• The fabric is again washed to remove excess dye and dried
thoroughly.
• The fabric is stretched over the printing table and fastened
with small pins. This is an important stage as there should be a
uniform tension in the fabric and no ripples.
• Color is mixed separately in another room. Usually pigment
dyes are used for cotton.
• The number of blocks needed per design depends on the
number of colours used.
Coloration
 171
Continue…

• A tray is filled with the pigment and the block is placed into it
to collect the accurate amount of dye.
• The block is then placed carefully on the fabric and struck
with the heel of the printer`s hand. The process is repeated
until the entire cloth is covered.
• The fabric, after pigment printing is dried out in the sun. This
is part of the fixing process.

Coloration
Screen Printing
172

Screen printing is a printing technique

whereby a mesh is used to transfer ink
onto a substrate, except in areas made
impermeable to the ink by a blocking
stencil. Screen printing is also a stencil
method of print making in which a
design is imposed on a screen of
polyester or other fine mesh. As the
screen rebounds away from the
substrate the ink remains on the
substrate.

One color is printed at a time, so several

screens can be used to produce a multi
colored image or design.

Coloration
Why Called ?
173

Traditionally the process was called screen printing or silkscreen

printing because silk was used in the process prior to the invention of
polyester mesh.

Currently, synthetic threads are commonly used in the screen printing

process. The most popular mesh in general use is made of polyester.
There are special-use mesh materials of nylon and stainless steel
available to the screen printer.

Coloration
Screens
174

• Made of cotton, silk, nylon cloth, polyester or metal gauze .

• Screen mesh refers to the number of threads per inch of
fabric. The more numerous the threads per inch the finer the
screen.
• The usual mesh of screen employed for cotton and silk
printing is 80 threads per inch.
• The finer the screen the sharper are the outlines but more
effort is needed to force the printing paste through the
screen. Screen Frames.

Coloration
 Screen Frames
175

• There are two types of screen

frames, metal and wood.
• Screen frames for commercial use
are usually made of steel, or a
lighter metal, with a hollow cross
section to provide rigidity with
minimum weight.
• Screen frames are usually 26" x
55" (measured externally) and
23" x 52" (measured internally)
for printing 45" wide cloth.

Coloration
Screen Fabric
176

There are two types of threads for screen fabric:

1. Monofilament - single strands weaved into fabric. Primarily

used in commercial printing and other applications.
Advantage: Monofilament is easier to clean than
multifilament.
2. Multifilament - multiple strands wound together like a rope,
then weaved into fabric. Primarily used in textile printing.
Disadvantage: Ink tends to build up on screen, more difficult
to clean. Monofilament mesh has become the industry
standard.

Coloration
Screen Fabric Types
177

1. Silk - multifilament weave

2. Nylon - multifilament or monofilament
3. Polyester - multifilament or monofilament (calendared
monofilament polyester, metallized monofilament polyester)
4. Other screen materials - carbonized polyester
• Glass
• Wire mesh
• Stainless steel

Coloration
Screen Fabric Selection
178

Coloration
What is Mesh?
179

• The screen printing process uses a porous mesh stretched tightly

over a frame made of wood or metal. Proper tension is essential for
accurate color registration. The mesh is made of porous fabric or
stainless steel.

• Screen mesh refers to the number of threads per inch of fabric.

The more numerous the threads per inch the finer the screen. Finer
mesh fabric should be 200-260 threads per inch. These are
generally used in graphic and industrial printing. Course mesh fabric
will be 160-180 threads per inch.

• Mesh = Thread/Inch
Courser Mesh use to apply more color but not very good printing.
Finer Mesh use to apply less color and for very good printing.

Coloration
Mesh Fabrics
180

Coloration
Screen Preparation
181

Photochemical method is most

widely used for preparing the
screen. This is based on the
principle that when a coating of
a solution of ammonium
dichromate-gelatine or
ammonium dichromate-
polyvinyl alcohol is dried and
exposed to light, Insolubilisation
takes place. Other method for
screen preparation is lacquer
and laser screen.

Coloration
Preparation of Sensitizing solution
182

Sensitizing solution may be prepared as follows:

(1) Chrome-Gelatine Solution
Solution A:
200 g Pure gelatin and 500 g Boiling water; Total 700 g
Solution B:
70 g Ammonium dichromate, 150 g Boiling water and 80 g Liquor
Ammonia; Total 300 g
Solution A and Solution B are mixed in a dark room.
(2) Chrome-Polyvinyl Alcohol Solution
600 g polyvinyl alcohol (15% solution), 160 ml Ammonium
dichromate (33% solution), 240 ml Cold water; Total 1 litre with
cold water.
Coloration
Photochemical Method
183

 Coat the flat screen with light-sensitive polymer, and dry it in

the dark.
 Position a positive transparency of the pattern on the
polymer-coated screen.
 Expose the screen to ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light rays
pass through the transparent (non-pattern) areas of the
transparency on to the screen and harden the polymer.
 Wash the screen in warm water to remove the polymer from
the unexposed (pattern) areas of the screen through which
the printing paste will pass.
 Dry the screen

Coloration
Fundamental characteristics of screen printing
184

 In screen printing process – hydrodynamic pressure is built up

in the print paste between the squeegee and the screen
surface through which the paste is passed.
 The hydrodynamic pressure appears to be inversely
proportional to the radius of the pore i.e. Hydrodynamic
pressure
 1/rn (n<2) Here the pore radius greatly affects the amount of
paste flowing through screen; Hydrodynamic pressure is also
proportional to the viscosity of paste.
 The percentage of open area of the screen also plays a role.
More open screens allow more paste to pass.

Coloration
Types of Screen Printing
185

Screen printing is by far the most common technology today.

Based on the type of the screen used.

Two types exist:

1) Flat (bed) screen printing.
2) Rotary screen printing

Flat screen printing divided into 3 types:

1. Hand Screen Printing
2. Semi Automatic Flat Screen Printing
3. Fully Automatic Flat Screen Printing

Coloration
Hand Screen Printing
186

The practice of hand screen printing is now mainly restricted in

the colleges of art, small-scale units and the high fashion
industry, as it is a craft rather than a productive method of
printing.
Printing is carried out on a flat,
solid table covered with a layer of
resilient felt and a washable
blanket (usually coated with
neoprene rubber).
Heat for drying the printed fabric
may be provided either under the
blanket or by hot air fans above
the table.
Coloration
Hand Screen Printing : Process Description
187

• The fabric to be printed is laid on the table and stuck to the

blanket directly, using either a water-soluble adhesive or a
semi-permanent adhesive.
• Then the fabric is pinned down on top of it.
• Before a design can be printed, it must be reproduced on the
screens in a suitable form. One screen is required for every
color in the design.
• The printing process consists of forcing a viscous print paste
through the open areas of the screen with a flexible, synthetic
rubber squeegee. The rubber blade, which is contained in a
wooden or metal support, is drawn steadily across the screen
at a constant angle and pressure.

Coloration
Process Description Continues…
188

• The screens must be carefully positioned on the fabric. The

area printed by a screen (screen repeat) must fit exactly
alongside the adjacent one, a slight overlap being preferable
to a gap.
• When screen printing is carried out by hand, alternate repeats
are normally printed along the full length of the table and
then the gaps are filled in. This allows time for the print paste
to penetrate the fabric and partially dry before the frame falls
on the next printed area.
• The screen is then washed and the second screen introduced
to print the second color.

Coloration
Factor of Print paste passing through the screen
189

The amount of print paste passing through the screen can be

controlled in several ways. Factors affecting this are:

 The ‘mesh’ (threads per inch) of the screen fabric;

 The hardness and cross-section of the squeegee blade;
 The hardness of the printing table;
 The viscosity of the print paste;
 The number of squeegee strokes; from two to four strokes are
usually applied ;
 The squeegee angle and pressure and
 The speed of the squeegee stroke.

Coloration
Semi Automatic Flat Screen Printing
190

The manual process has been semi-automated by mounting the

screen in a carriage and driving the squeegee mechanically across
the screen. Long tables, typically 20–60 m long, are used, and
some provision is usually made for drying the printed fabric.
Semi-automated flat screen printing is
still very popular where the scale of
production is not large, or where
capital investment is limited. In both
hand and semi-automatic flat-screen
printing the colors are printed one
after another with time for drying,
which means that the situation
approaches ‘wet-on-dry’ printing.
Coloration
Fully Automatic Flat Screen Printing
191

Perhaps surprisingly, the level of automation for one-color-at-a-

time flat-screen printing has advanced a great deal recently.
Instead of a flat, stationary table, a moving blanket is
incorporated, as in fully automatic machines.
In order to increase the speed of flat-screen printing, it was
necessary to devise a method of printing all the colors
simultaneously.
Unfortunately, flat screens are not suitable coloration units for a
truly continuous process, and in all the successful machines for
fully automatic flat-screen printing the color is applied through
the screens while the fabric is stationary.

Coloration
Process Description
192

• All the screens for the design (one screen for each color) are
positioned accurately along the top of a long endless belt,
known as a blanket. A machine intended to print traditional
furnishing designs might have space for 15 or more screens.
• The fabric is gummed to the blanket at the entry end and
moves along with the blanket in an intermittent fashion, one
screen-repeat distance at a time.
• All the colors in the design are printed simultaneously while
the fabric is stationary; then the screens are lifted and the
fabric and blanket move on.

Coloration
 193
• When the fabric approaches the turning point of the blanket,
it is pulled off and passes into a dryer. The soiled blanket is
washed and dried during its return passage on the underside
of the machine.

Coloration
Adhesive System of Fully Automatic Flat Screen Printing M/C
194

When fully automatic flat-screen machines were first introduced,

it was quite common to combine the fabric to be printed with a
adhesive, especially if the fabric was lightweight. As adhesives
and methods of their application were improved, this practice
became less important.

The method which then became established, and which is still in

use in many plants, is to apply a water-based adhesive to the
blanket at the entry end, by means of a brush running in a
trough containing the adhesive solution, and to spread the layer
more evenly with a rubber squeegee; the fabric is then pressed
against the tacky blanket with a pressure roller. A hot-air dryer is
sometimes employed to dry the adhesive before the fabric is
printed.
Coloration
Squeegee systems of Fully Automatic Flat Screen Printing m/c
195

The two most popular squeegee systems are described below:

1. Double-blade Squeegee:
A pair of parallel rubber-blade squeegees is driven across the screen with the
print paste in the gap between them. Only the rear squeegee makes contact
with the screen, the leading squeegee being raised slightly above it. When
the next stroke is made, the leading squeegee for the first pass becomes the
rear one for the reverse direction.

Coloration
 196

2. Magnetic-rod Squeegee

 A completely different approach was adopted by Zimmer, who

invented a rolling-rod squeegee moved by an electromagnet,
driven intermittently under the blanket.
 In fully automatic flat-screen machines the rod rolls in the
lengthwise direction and one passage is usually all that is
required for adequate cover and uniformity.
 The diameter of the rod is usually small enough to allow print
paste to flow over and round it at the end of a pass.
 It is clear that screen distortion and wear are less where
rolling rods, rather than rubber-blade squeegees, are used.

Coloration
Rotary Screen Printing
197

In basic operation, rotary screen and flat screen-printing machines

are very similar. Both use the same type of in-feed device, glue
trough, rotating blanket (print table), dryer, and fixation equipment.
The process involves initially feeding fabric onto the rubber blanket.
As the fabric travels under the rotary screens, the screens turn with
the fabric.

Coloration
 198
Print paste is
continuously fed to
the interior of the
screen through a
color bar or pipe. As
the screen rotates,
the squeegee device
pushes print paste
through the design
areas of the screen
onto the fabric.
As in flat-bed screen printing, only one color can be printed by each
screen. After print application, the process is the same as flat screen
printing. Estimates indicate that this technique controls approximately
65% of the printed fabric market worldwide.

Coloration
Flat bed to Rotary screen
199

 Modification of flatbed screen printing: from semi

continuous to continuous, low productivity to high
productivity.
 Quality of end result.
 Amount of color that can be applied. Note that the
screen area consisting of holes is smaller in rotary
screens than in flat screens.
 Evenness of color.
 Ability to produce fine lines and half-tones. Half-
tones are tone graduations within one colored area.

Coloration
 200
Cont…

 More compact than flat screen machines for the same

number of colors in the pattern.
 Rotary screen machines are highly productive, allow for the
quick changeover of patterns, have few design limitations,
and can be used for both continuous and discontinuous
patterns.
 Typical speeds are from 50-120 ypm (45-100 mpm).
 High investment cost and the machines are generally not
profitable for short yardages of widely varying patterns.
 Controls approximately 65% of the printed fabric market
worldwide.

Coloration
Squeegee Systems of Rotary Screen Printing
201

1. Conventional Squeegee
2. Airflow Squeegee
3. Magnetic Squeegee

Coloration
Defects on Screen Printing
202

 Out of registration – pattern out of fit.

 Glue streaks – from the rubber blanket.
 Color smear.
 Color out – from a lack of print paste.
 Creased fabric.
 Pinholes in any screen.
 Damage to the screen leading to misprints.
 Lint on the fabric causes pick-off.
 The prints may come out lighter in the middle and deeper
towards the selvedges. This occurs when too much cloth is
steamed in one batch or when the cloth is very thick.

Coloration
Roller Printing
203

Roller printing is a printing method where printing design is

produced by engraved rollers. It turns out color-designed fabrics
in vast quantities at the rate of 1000 to 4000 yards an hour. This
method of producing attractive designs is relatively inexpensive
when compared with any hand method.

It is machine counterpart of block printing. In this printing,

engraved copper cylinders or rollers take the place of the hand
carved blocks. Just as there must be a separate block for each
color in block printing, so must there be as many engraved
rollers in machine as there are colors in the design to be
imprinted. With each revolution of the roller, a repeat of the
design is printed.

Coloration
 History of Roller Printing
204

Roller printing, also called

cylinder printing or machine
printing, on fabrics is a textile
printing process patented by
Thomas Bell of Scotland in
1783 in an attempt to reduce
the cost of the earlier
copperplate printing. This
method was used in
Lancashire fabric mills to
produce cotton dress fabrics
from the 1790s.

Coloration
205

Improvements in the technology resulted in more elaborate

roller prints in bright, rich colors from the 1820s; Turkey red
and chrome yellow were particularly popular.

Roller printing supplanted

the older woodblock printing
on textiles in industrialized
countries until it was
resurrected for textiles by
William Morris in the mid-
19th century.

Coloration
Machine Construction
206

A traditional two-color roller printing machine is shown

diagrammatically in the Figure. (Previous Slide)
1. Each engraved cylinder (F), mounted on a steel mandrel (L),
is forced against the fabric being printed (E) as it travels
around a pressure bowl (A) with resilient covering (B).
2. The machine must be of heavy construction because
pressures of several tones are applied and each mandrel is
driven by a single large crown wheel.
3. As the rollers rotate, a furnishing roller (G) transfers print
paste (color) from a color box (H) to the engraved cylinder,
filling the engraving and painting the whole surface.
4. This surface color is almost immediately removed by the
steel blade known as the color doctor (J).

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207 Continue…

A= Pressure bowl
B= Resilient covering
C= Endless Blanket
D= Back-grey
E= The fabric
F= Engraved cylinder
G= Furnishing roller
H= Color box
J= Color doctor
L= Steel mandrel

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 208 Continue…

5. The fabric is then forced into the engraving and most of the
paste is transferred.
6. An endless printing blanket (C) must be used and washed and
dried continuously before returning to the point of printing.
7. In addition, a back-grey (D) is used to absorb color and give
greater resilience, unless the blanket provides enough
resilience and is able to hold the excess color satisfactorily.
8. After transferring its color, the engraved roller is cleaned by a
brass blade known as the lint doctor (K).
9. The printed fabric is now separated from the back-grey and
blanket and carried on to the drying section of the machine.

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209

Coloration
Advantages of Engrave Roller Printing Machine
210

1. Higher production without rotary screen printing machine.

2. 14 colors can be used for printing.
3. Medium design can be produced.
4. Can be used for printing any style.
5. Any color is used for printing without higher alkali or conc.
acid.
6. Repeats do not exist as printing is continuous.
7. Higher production by using single color.
8. Complex design is possible.

Coloration
Disadvantages of Engrave Roller Printing Machine
211

• Large design is not possible.

• Generally, shedding fault is found.
• Higher coloring effect is not possible as like block printing.
• Lower production by using more than one color.
• Changing time is high.
• Engraving the printing roller is expensive Operation.

Coloration
The Defects in the Engrave Roller Printing
212

1. Scratches
2. Snappers
3. Lifts
4. Streaks
5. Scumming
6. Lobbing

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Difference between…
213

Rotary Screen Printing and Engraved Roller Printing

S/N Rotary Screen Printing Roller Printing
1. Printing is done by specially made Printing is done by specially engraved
perforated cylindrical or spherical copper roller.
screen.
2. Paste is pumped to the screen Paste is transferred to the engraved roller
and distributed length wise by by color furnishing roller.
pumps.
3. Up to 24 colors can be printed but Even 16 engraved roller can be used for
8-10 are printed easily. different colors of pattern only 4-6.
4. Can be printed woven and knitted Can be printed woven and tricot fabric.
fabric.
5. The main equipment of printing is The main equipment of printing is
rotary screen. engraved roller.
6. Design can be changed quickly. More time required for changing of
pattern.
8. Setting up time – lower. Setting up time – higher.
9. Production rate-high. Production rate medium.

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 214
Contents

1. Basics of Color
2. Introduction to Dyeing
3. Dyeing Machines
4. Direct Dyes
5. Acid Dyes
6. Basic Dyes
7. Vat Dyes
8. Introduction to Printing
9. Methods of Printing
10. Styles of Printing

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Styles For Textile Printing
215

1. Direct style 7. Foil printing

2. Resist style 8. Flock style printing

3. Discharge style 9. Glitter printing

10. Emboss printing
4. Rubber print style
11. High density printing
5. Plastisol printing
12. Crack printing
6. Process printing

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 216
Direct Style
• It is the most common approach to apply a colour pattern
on fabric.
• It can be done on white or a coloured fabric.
• If done on coloured fabric, it is known as overprinting.
• The desired pattern is produced by imprinting dye on the
fabric in a paste form.
• To prepare the print paste, a thickening agent is added to a
limited amount of water and dye is dissolved in it.
• Earlier corn starch was preferred as a thickening agent for
cotton printing.

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 217
Continue…

• Nowadays gums or alginates

derived from seaweed are
preferred because they are
easier to wash out, do not
themselves absorb any colour
and allow better penetration
of colour.
• Most pigment printing is done
without thickeners as the
mixing up of resins, solvents
and water itself produces
thickening.

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RESIST PRINTING
218

• In this technique, a resist paste is imprinted on the fabric and

then it is dyed.
• The dye affects only those parts that are not covered by the
resist paste.
• After dyeing, the resist paste is removed leaving a pattern on
a dark background.

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DISCHARGE PRINTING
219

• In this approach, the fabric is dyed in piece and then it is

printed with a chemical that destroys the colour in the
designed areas.
• Sometimes, the base colour is removed and another colour is
printed in its place.
• The printed fabric is steamed and then thoroughly washed.
• This approach is on decline these days.

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220
Continue…

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221
Continue…

Coloration
ADVANTAGES
222
& DISADVANTAGES OF DISCHARGE PRINTING

Advantages Disadvantages
1. It enables light, brighter colors to be 1. It is an expensive process. Two stage
obtained on a dark ground. application involved in dyeing or padding
and discharge printing.
2. Very sharp features like fine outlines, 2. Limited choice of ground and motif
dots, raster etc., can be produced with colors.
total clarity.
3. Printing of white pattern on colored 3. Requires rigid process care that any
ground (In case of direct style) is avoided default will lead to damages.
by discharge printing.
4. The effect, clarity, distinction, richness
and aesthetic appeal obtained add value
for discharge printing

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 223

RUBBER PRINTING
A very common and versatile material that is used to print to garment
due to its ability to adhere well to fabric. It can apply to most fabric
materials in light or dark colours. The texture feels thick and tensile. A
special rubber formulation has to be made in order to apply this print to
elastic material.
RUBBER PRINTING PROCESS

Table preparation
↓
Fabric plaited on the table
↓
Rubber printing paste apply with the
help of screen
↓
Curing at 450ºc (Belt speed 5 m/min)
↓
Delivery
 224

PLASTISOL PRINTING
Plastisol is commonly used as a textile ink
PLASTISOL PRINTING
for screen-printing and as a coating.
PROCESS
Plastisol inks are recommended for printing
Printing paste preparation
on colored fabric and can retain a bright
↓
image. Most plastisols need about 450
Table preparation
degrees Celsius for full curing.
↓
Fabric plaited on the table
↓
High-density paste apply by
screen
↓
Curing at 160ºc (belt speed
3m/min)
↓
Delivery
 225

PROCESS PRINTING
Process color printing, is known at four-color PROCESS PRINTING
process printing, is a method that FLOW
reproduces finished full-color artwork and Paste preparation
photographs. The three primary colors used ↓
are cyan (process blue), magenta (process Table preparation
red), and yellow. These inks are translucent ↓
and are used to simulate different colors. Fabric plaited on the
The "K" in CMYK is black. Black ink is used table
to create fine detail and strong shadows. ↓
Printing paste is applied
through 4 different
screens on the fabric
↓
Curing at 450ºc (belt
speed 5m/min)
↓
Delivery
 226

FOIL PRINTING
Foil printing is a sublimation transfer Foil printing flow chart
printing process. Foil printing is done by Fabric plaited on the table
the help of paper. Foil paper is solid color ↓
Foil gun / Foil paste (Gum)apply
which is made by buyer requirement.
by screen
Printing is done in high temperature and ↓
pressure. By this printing process man- Dry slightly in air temp / Hand
made and natural both fabric types can be dryer
print. ↓
Apply foil paper on the fabric
↓
Heat apply by heat press m/c
150 ºc for 5 sec)
↓
Cooling for 4 sec
↓
Foil paper removed by hand
↓
Delivery
 227

FLOCK PRINTING
Flock printing flow chart
Flock printing is done by depositing various Fabric plaited on the table
flocks on the surface of the fabric. Flocks ↓
means small finely cut natural or synthetic Apply flock paste with the help
fibers. This flocks are applied on an adhesive of screen
coated surface for impart a decorative or ↓
functional characteristics to the surface of the Flock powder apply with the
fabric. help of flock gun
↓
Manually dry by hanging for
30min
↓
Curing at 180ºc (belt speed 3
m/min)
↓
Delivery
↓
Brushing
↓
Delivery
 228

GLITTER PRINTING
Glitter paste preparation
Glitter is a transfer printing process. After
↓
pre-treatment of the fabric, printing
Table preparation
operation is done on the table. Printing
↓
glitter paste is applied on the fabric by the
Fabric plaited on the table
screen printing process. After printing,
↓
curing is done at high temperature. Curing
Glitter paste apply by
should be done slowly otherwise it may
screen
affect the printing performance.
↓
Hanging for 15min f or
dry
Curing at 160º c (belt
speed 3m/min)
↓
Delivery
 229

EMBOSS PRINTING
Process flow of puff printing
Emboss printing is not as available as
pigment printing, foil printing, flock Paste preparation with puff
printing or any others dyes printing. It is chemical
specially done for logo making or others ↓
decorative purpose. In this printing Table preparation
process, printing is done by embossing ↓
the printing paste on the textile materials. Fabric plaited on the table
↓
Apply printing paste by screen
(3times)
↓
Hanging f or 15min
↓
Curing at 450 ºc (belt speed
3m/min)
↓
Delivery
 230

CRACK PRINTING
Crack printing is a printing method to Print paste preparation
produce attractive design on the fabric with cracking chemical
surface. Here rubber is used as the printing ↓
paste. It is near similar as rubber printing Crack paste/clear apply
process but additional crack paste is used with the help of screen
before applying rubber printing paste by the ↓
screen printer on the cotton fabric. Dry in air temp or hand
dryer m/c (slight)
↓
Printing paste apply with
the help of screen
↓
Curing at 450ºc (belt
speed 2 m/min)
↓
Delivery
 231

HIGH DENSITY PRINTING

High density printing is done by more High density printing flow
number of stroke to make the printed area Paste preparation
thicker during printing. High density printing ↓
may be two types: Rubber base high Table preparation
density & Plastisol base high density. ↓
Fabric plaited on the table
↓
Printing paste is applied
through screen on the
fabric & stroke repeatedly
till the design is produced
↓
Curing at 450ºc (belt speed
5m/min)
↓
Delivery
232