Lectures of

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer Rate Processes
Mode Transfer Mechanism Rate of heat transfer (W)
Conduction Diffusion of energy due to 𝑑𝑇
random molecular motion 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Convection Diffusion of energy due to 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
random molecular motion
plus bulk motion
Radiation Energy transfer by 𝑞 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟4
)
electromagnetic Waves

By

Asst. Prof. Dr. Sattar Aljabair

Chapter 1 Introduction MED 3rd
Year

Dr. Sattar Aljabair 2

Chapter 1 Introduction MED 3rd
Year

Dr. Sattar Aljabair 3

Chapter 1 Introduction MED 3rd
Year

Chapter One
Introduction

1. Introduction
A consider the cooling of a hot steal rod which is place in a cold
water Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium temperature
of the rod-water combination. It will not tell us how long it takes to reach this
equilibrium condition. Heat Transfer may be used to predict the temperature of the
rod and the water as a function of time.
1.1

1.1 Definition: ‫مهمة تعاريف‬

Heat: is the energy transit as a result of the temperature difference.
Heat transfer: is that science which seeks to predict the energy transfer that
may take
place between material bodes as a result of a temperature difference.
Thermodynamics: is the state science of energy, the transformation of energy
and the
change in the state of matter. (Thermodynamics can be able to determination of
heat and work requirements for chemical and physical process and the
equilibrium conditions).
Heat flux: heat transfer flow in the direction per unit area (q”).
Steady state: Temperature is very does not very with time (dT/dt) =0.
Unsteady state: temperature is depending on time

1.2 Modes of Heat Transfer ‫أنماط انتقال الحرارة‬

The engineering area frequently referred to as thermal science includes
thermodynamics and heat transfer. The role of heat transfer is to supplement
thermodynamic analyses, which consider only systems in equilibrium, with
additional laws that allow prediction of time rates of energy transfer. These
supplemental laws are based upon the three fundamental modes of heat transfer
conduction, convection, and radiation.

1.3 A Conduction Heat Transfer

Conduction may be viewed as the transfer of energy from the more
energetic to the less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions
between the particles. A temperature gradient within a homogeneous substance
results in an energy transfer rate within the medium which can be calculated by
Fourier's law
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 (1.1)
𝑑𝑥
Where q is the heat transfer rate (W or J/s) and k thermal conductivity (W/m K)
is an

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Experimental constant for the medium involved, and it may depend upon other
𝑑𝑇
properties, such as temperature and pressure. Is the temperature gradient in
𝑑𝑥
the direction normal to the area A.

Figure 1.1 Temperature distributions for steady state conduction. Through a plate wall

The minus sign in Fourier's Law (1.1) is required by the second law of thermodynamics:
thermal energy transfer resulting from a thermal gradient must be from a warmer to a colder
region. If the temperature profile within the medium is linear Fig. 1.1 it is permissible to replace
the temperature gradient (partial derivative) with
𝑇2 −𝑇1
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 (1.2)
𝐿
The quantity (L/kA) is equivalent to a thermal resistance Rk (K/W) which is equal to the
reciprocal of the conductance. As:
𝑇2 −𝑇1 𝐿
𝑞= , 𝑅𝑘 = (1.3)
𝑅𝑘 𝑘𝐴

Such linearity always exists in a homogeneous medium of fixed k during steady state heat
transfer occurs whenever the temperature at every point within the body, including the surfaces,
is independent of time.

Figure 1.2 Association of conduction heat transfer with diffusion of energy due to
molecular activity.

𝑑𝑇
If the temperature changes with time , energy is either being stored in or removed from
𝑑𝑡
the body. This storage rate is

𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡 (1.4)

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Where m is the mass of substance and Cp is specific heat capacity.

1.3.1 Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to
conduct heat.
I. Thermal Conductivity of Solids: In general, k for a pure metal decreases with
temperature; alloying elements tend to reverse this trend. The thermal
conductivity of a metal can usually be represented over a wide range of
temperature by
𝑘 = 𝑘𝑜 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝜃 + 𝑏𝜃 2 ) (1.5)
Where 𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 and 𝑘𝑜 is the conductivity at the reference temperature Tref .
The thermal conductivity of a non homogeneous material is usually markedly
dependent upon the apparent bulk density, As a general rule, k for a no
homogeneous material increases both with increasing temperature and
increasing apparent bulk density.
II. Thermal Conductivity of Liquids: Thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease
with increasing temperature. But insensitive to pressure the exception is water, which
exhibits increasing k up to about 150°C and decreasing k there after. Water has the
highest thermal conductivity of all common liquids except the so-called liquid metals.
III. Thermal Conductivity of Gases: The thermal conductivity of a gas increases with
increasing temperature, but is essentially independent of pressure for pressures close
to atmospheric. For high pressure (i.e., pressure of the order of the critical pressure or
greater), the effect of pressure may be significant.

Fig(1.3) The mechanism of heat conduction of different phases of a substance.

1.4 Convection Heat Transfer

Whenever a solid body is exposed to a moving fluid having a temperature different from
that of the body, energy is carried or convected from or to the body by the fluid If the upstream
temperature of the fluid is T , and the surface temperature of the solid is Ts the heat transfer
per unit time is given by Newton s Law of cooling:
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) (1.6)
Where h is Convective Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) as the constant of
proportionality relating the heat transfer per unit time and area to the overall
temperature difference. It is important to keep in mind that the fundamental energy
exchange at a solid-fluid boundary is by conduction, and that this energy is then
converted away by the fluid flow.
The thermal resistance to convection heat transfer Rc, as:
1 𝑇 −𝑇
𝑅𝑐 = ℎ 𝐴 , 𝑞 = 𝑠 𝑅 ∞ (1.7)
𝑐

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Fig (1.4) Velocity and temperature distribution on flat plate

1.5 A Radiation Heat Transfer

The third mode of heat transmission is due to electromagnetic wave
propagation, which can occur in a total vacuum as well as in a medium. Experimental
evidence indicates that radiant heat transfer is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature, where as conduction and convection are proportional to a linear
temperature difference. The
fundamental Stefan-Boltzmann Law is:
𝑞 = 𝜎𝜀𝑇 4 (1.8)
Where T is the absolute temperature, σ is Boltzmann constant independent of
surface, medium, and temperature; its value is 5.6697 × 10-8 W/m2.K4 ., the thermal
emission from many surfaces (gray bodies) can be well represented by:
𝑞 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 4
) (1.9)
Where ε, the emissivity of the surface, ranges (0-1). The ideal emitter or
blackbody is one, All other surfaces emit some what less than one. Ts and Tsur The
temperature of surface and surroundings respectively. Similarly, the thermal resistance
to radiation heat transfer Rr, as:
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
𝑅𝑟 = ,𝑞 = (1.10)
𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑠4 −𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 ) 𝑅𝑟

Table 1. Summary of heat transfer rate processes

Mode Rate of heat Thermal Resistance

Transfer Mechanism transfer(W) (K/W)
Conduction Diffusion of energy due 𝑑𝑇 𝐿
to random molecular 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑅𝑘 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
motion
Convection Diffusion of energy due 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 1
𝑅𝑐 =
to random molecular ℎ𝐴
motion plus bulk
motion
Radiation 𝑞 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
) 𝑅𝑟
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
Energy transfer by =
electromagnetic Waves 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 )

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Figure (1.5) Conduction, Convection and Radiation Heat transfer Modes

The concept of thermal resistance (analogous to electrical resistance) is introduced as an

aid to solving conduction heat transfer problems.

Example 1.1
Calculate the rate of heat transfer by natural convection between a shed roof of area 20 m
x 20 m and ambient air, if the roof surface temperature is 27°C, the air temperature 3°C, and
the average convection heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2 K.

Figure 1.6 Schematic Sketch of Shed for

Analysis of Roof Temperature.

Solution
Assume that steady state exists and the direction of heat flow is from the air to the roof. The
rate of heat transfer by convection from the air to the roof is then given by Eq:

𝑞𝑐 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 ) = 10 × 400 × (−3 − 27) = −120,000 𝑊

Note we initially assumed that the heat transfer would be from the air to the roof. But
since the heat flow under this assumption turns out to be a negative quantity the direction of
heat flow is actually from the roof to the air.

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Example 1.2
Determine the steady state rate of heat transfer per unit area through a 4.0cm thick
homogeneous slab with its two faces maintained at uniform temperatures of 38oC and 21 oC.
The thermal conductivity of the material is 0.19 W/m K.

𝑞 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) (38 − 21) 𝑊

= −𝑘 = −0.19 × = +80.75 2
𝐴 (𝑋2 − 𝑋1) (0.04) 𝑚

Example 1.3
The forced convective heat transfer coefficient for a hot fluid x1 x2 flowing
over a cool surface is 225 W/m2.oC for a particular problem. The fluid temperature
upstream of the cool surface is 120 oC, and the surface is held at 10 oC. Determine the
heat transfer rate per unit surface area from the fluid to the surface.

q = h A(Ts-T∞)
q/A= 225(120-10)=24750 W/m2

Example 1.4
After sunset, radiant energy can be sensed by a person standing near a brick
wall. Such walls frequently have surface temperatures around 44 oC, and typical brick
emissivity values are on the order of 0.92. What would be the radiant thermal flux per
square foot from a brick wall at this temperature?
𝑊
𝑞 = 𝜎𝜀𝑇 4 = 0.92 × 5.6697 × 10−8 × (44 + 273) = 527 2 -
𝑚
Example 1.5
In the summer, parked automobile surfaces frequently average 40-50 oC.
Assuming 45
o
C and surface emissivity of 0.9, determine the radiant thermal flux emitted by a car
roof
𝑊
𝑞 = 𝜎𝜀𝑇 4 = 0.9 × 5.6697 × 10−8 × (318) = 522 2 -
𝑚
Example 1.6
The air inside an electronics package housing has a temperature of 50°C. A "chip" in this
housing has internal thermal power generation (heating) rate of 3 X 10 -3 W. This chip is
subjected to an air flow resulting in a convective coefficient h of 9 W/m2.oC over its two main
surfaces which are 0.5 cm X 1.0 cm. Determine the chip surface temperature neglecting
radiation and heat transfer from the edges.
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

In this case q is known 3 X 10 -3 W, and this is from two surfaces

0.5 1
having total area 𝐴 = 2 × 100 × 100 = 10−4 𝑚2

𝑞
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇∞ + ℎ𝐴 = 50 + 9×10−4 = 53.33 oC
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑

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Example 1.7
Calculate the thermal resistance and the rate of heat transfer through a pane of
window glass (k = 0.78 W/m K) 1 m high, 0.5 m wide, and 0.5 cm thick, if the outer-
surface temperature is 24°C and the inner-surface temperature is 24.5°C

Solution
Assume that steady state exists and that the
temperature is uniform over the inner and
outer surfaces. The thermal resistance to
conduction Rk is from Eq.
𝐿 0.005 𝐾
𝑅𝑘 = = = 0.0128
𝑘𝐴 0.78 × 1 × 0.5 𝑊

The rate of heat loss from the interior to the

exterior surface is:
∆𝑇 24.5 − 24
𝑞= = = 39.1 𝑊
𝑅𝑘 0.0128

Example 1.8
A long, cylindrical electrically heated rod, 2 cm in diameter, is installed in a
vacuum furnace as shown in Fig.1.8. The surface of the heating rod has an emissivity
of 0.9 and is maintained at 1000 K, while the interior walls of the furnace are black and
are at 800 K. Calculate the net rate at which heat is lost from the rod per unit length and
the radiation heat transfer coefficient.

Figure 1.7 Schematic Diagram of Vacuum Furnace with Heating Rod

Solution
Assume that steady state has been reached. Moreover, note that since the walls of the
furnace completely enclose the heating rod, all the radiant energy emitted by the surface
of the rod is intercepted by the furnace walls. Thus, for a black enclosure, Eq. (1.9)
applies and the net heat loss from the rod of surface A1 is
𝑞 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 )

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= 𝜎𝜀𝜋𝐷𝐿(𝑇𝑠4 − 4 )
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟

= 5.67 × 10−8 × 0.9 × 𝜋 × 0.02 × 1 × (10004 − 8004 )

=1893 W
Note that in order for steady state to exist, the heating rod must dissipate electrical
energy at the rate of 1893 W and the rate of heat loss through the furnace walls must
equal the rate of electric input to the system, that is, to the rod.
𝜎𝜀(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) 𝑊
ℎ𝑟 = = 151 2
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑚 .𝐾
Example 1.9
An instrument used to study the Ozone depletion near the poles is placed on
a large 2-cm-thick duralumin plate. To simplify this analysis the instrument can be
thought of as a stainless steel plate 1 cm tall with a 10 cm x 10 cm square base, as shown
in Fig. 1.6. The interface roughness of the steel and the duralumin is between 20 and
30 rms (µm) the contact resistance is 0.05 k/w. Four screws at the corners. The top and
sides of the instrument are thermally insulated.
An integrated circuit placed between the
insulation and the upper surface of the stainless
steel plate generates heat. If this heat is to be
transferred to the lower surface of the
duralumin, estimated to be at a temperature of
0°C, determine the maximum allowable
dissipation rate from the circuit if its
temperature is not to exceed 40°C.

Figure 1.8 Schematic

Sketch of Instrument for Ozone
Measurement.
Solution
Since the top and the sides of the instrument are insulated, all the heat generated
by the circuit must flow downward. The thermal circuit will have three resistances the
stainless steel, the contact, and the duralumin. Using thermal conductivities kss = 14.4
W/m K, kM = 164 W/m K the thermal resistances of the metal plates are calculated from
Equations:

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1.6 The Energy Balance

In this special case the control surface includes no mass or volume and appears
as shown in Figure 1.8.Accordingly, the generation and storage terms of the Energy
expression,
Ein –Eout -Est + Eg= 0
Consequently, there can be no generation and storage. The conservation requirement
then becomes
Ein –Eout = 0
In Figure 1.8 three heat transfer terms are shown for the control surface. On a
unit area basis they are conduction from the medium to the control surface q"cond
convection from the surface to a fluid q"conv, and net radiation exchange from the
surface to the surroundings q"rad. The energy
balance then takes the Form and we can express
each of the terms according to the appropriate rate
equations.

′′ ′′ ′′
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑

1.7 Combined heat transfer systems

Summarizes the basic relations for the rate equation of each of the three basic
heat transfer mechanisms to aid in setting up the thermal circuits for solving combined
heat transfer problems.

1.7.1 Plane Walls in Series

In Fig. 1.15 for a three-layer system, the temperature gradients in the layers are
different. The rate of heat conduction through each layer is qk, and from Eq. (1.1) we
get

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Eliminating the intermediate

temperatures T2 and T3 in Eq. qk
can be expressed in the
form

Similarly, for N layers in series we have

where T1 is the outer-surface temperature of layer 1 and TN+1 is the outer-surface

temperature of layer N. and ∆T is the overall temperature difference, often called the
temperature potential.

Figure 1.9
Conduction Through
a Three-Layer System
in Series.

Example 1. 6
Calculate the rate of heat loss from a furnace wall per unit area. The wall is
constructed from an inner layer of 0.5 cm thick steel (k : 40 W/m K) and an outer layer
of 10 cm zirconium brick (k = 2.5 W/m K) as shown in Fig. The inner-surface
temperature is 900 K and the outside surface temperature is 460 K. What is the
temperature at the interface?

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Figure 1.10 Schematic Diagram of Furnace Wall.

Solution
Assumptions:
• Assume that steady state exists,
• neglect effects at the corners and edges of the wall,
• the surface temperatures are uniform.
The rate of heat loss per unit area can be calculated from Eq:

The interface temperature T2 is obtained from

Solving for T2 gives

Note that the temperature drop across the steel interior wall is only 1.4 K because the
thermal resistance of the wall is small compared to the resistance of the brick.

Example 1. 7
Two large aluminium plates (k = 240 W/m K), each 1 cm thick, with 10 µm
surface roughness the contact resistance Ri = 2.75 x 10-4 m2 K/W. The temperatures at
the outside surfaces are 395°C and 405°C. Calculate (a) the heat flux (b) the temperature
drop due to the contact resistance.

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Figure 1.11 Schematic Diagram of Interface

Between Plates.

Solution
(a) The rate of heat flow per unit area, q'' through the sandwich wall is

The two resistances is equal to

(L/k) = (0.01 m)/(240 W/m.K) = 4.17 x 10-5 m2 K/W
Hence, the heat flux is

(b) The temperature drop in each section. The fraction of the contact resistance is

Hence 7.67°C of the total temperature drop of 10°C is the result of the contact
resistance.

1.7.2 Plane Walls in Parallel

Conduction can occur in a section with two different materials in parallel between
the same potential.
Figure shows a slab
with two different
materials of areas AA
and AB in parallel. If
the temperatures over
the left and right faces
are uniform at T1 and
T2, the total rate of
heat flow is the sum of
the flows through AA
and AB:
Note that the total heat transfer area is the sum of AA and AB and that the total resistance
equals the product of the individual resistances divided by their sum, as in any parallel

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circuit. A more complex application of the thermal network approach is illustrated in

Fig. 1.12, where heat is transferred through a composite structure involving thermal
resistances in series and in parallel. For this system the resistance of the middle layer,

R2 becomes and the rate of heat flow is

. Figure 1.12 Conduction Through a Wall Consisting of Series and Parallel Thermal
Paths.

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Example 1. 8 A layer of 2 in thick firebrick (kb = 1.0 Btu/hr ft °F) is placed between
two ¼ in.-thick steel plates (ks = 30 Btu/hr ft °F). The faces of the brick adjacent to the
plates are rough, having solid-to-solid contact over only 30 % of the total area, with the
average height of asperities being L2=1/32 in. If the surface temperatures of the steel
plates are 200° and 800°F, respectively. The conductivity of air ka is 0.02 Btu/hr ft °F,
determine the rate of heat flow per unit area.

Figure 1.13 Thermal Circuit for the Parallel-Series Composite Wall. L1 = 1 in.;L2 =
1/32 in.; L3= 1/4 in.; T1 is at the center.

Solution
The overall unit conductance for half the composite wall is then, from an inspection of
the thermal circuit

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Since the air is trapped in very small compartments, the effects of convection
are small and it will be assumed that heat flows through the air by conduction. At a
temperature of 300°F. Then R5 the thermal resistance of the air trapped between the
asperities, is, on the basis of a unit area, equal to

The factors 0.3 and 0.7 in R4 and R5, respectively, represent the percent of the
total area for the two separate heat flow paths. The total thermal resistance for the two
paths, R4 and R5 in parallel, is

The thermal resistance of half of the solid brick, Rl is and the overall unit conductance
is

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Inspection of the values for the various thermal resistances shows that the steel offers a
negligible resistance

1.5.2 Convection and Conduction in Series

Figure (1.14) shows a situation in which heat is transferred between two fluids
separated by a wall, the rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid at temperature Thot to the
cold fluid at temperature Tcold is

Figure 1.14 Thermal Circuit with Conduction and Convection in Series.

Example 1.8
A 0.1 m thick brick wall (k = 0.7 W/m K) is exposed to a cold wind at 270 K
through a convection heat transfer coefficient of 40 W/m2 K. On the other side is air at
330 K, with a natural convection heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2 K. Calculate the
rate of heat transfer per unit area.

Solution
The three resistances are the rate of heat transfer per unit area is :

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1.5.3 Convection and Radiation in Parallel

In many engineering problems a surface loses or receives thermal energy by
convection and radiation
simultaneously. Figure below
illustrates the co current heat
transfer from a surface to its
surroundings by convection and
radiation.

where hc is the average

convection heat transfer
coefficient between area A1 and
the surroundings air at T2, the
radiation heat transfer coefficient

The combined heat transfer

coefficient is h = hc + hr

Example 1.5
Air at 20C blow over a hot
plate 50 x 75 cm and thick 2 cm
maintained at 250 oC. The convection
heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2 C.
calculate the inside plate temperature if
it is mode of carbon steel and that 300
W is lost from the plate surface by
radiation. Where thermal conductivity
is 43 w/m C.
Solution

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Example 1.9
A 0.5 m diameter pipe (ε = 0.9) carrying steam has a surface temperature of 500
K. The pipe is located in a room at 300 K, and the convection heat transfer coefficient
between the pipe surface and the air in the room is 20 W/m2 K. Calculate the combined
heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat loss per meter of pipe length.

Figure 1.15 Schematic Diagram of Steam Pipe

Solution

hr = 13.9 W/m2 K
The combined heat transfer coefficient is h = hc + hr = 20 + 13.9 = 33.9 W/m2 K
and the rate of heat loss per meter is

1.5.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

We noted previously that a common heat transfer problem is to determine the
rate of heat flow between two fluids, gaseous or liquid, separated by a wall. If the wall
is plane and heat is transferred only by convection on both sides, the rate of heat transfer
in terms of the two fluid temperatures is given by:

the rate of heat flow is expressed only in terms of an overall temperature

potential
and the heat transfer characteristics of individual sections in the heat flow path., the
overall transmittance, or the overall coefficient of heat transfer U Writing Eq. (1.29)
in terms of an overall coefficient gives

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An overall heat transfer coefficient U can be based on any chosen area

Example 1.10
In the design of a heat exchanger for aircraft application, the maximum wall
temperature in steady state is not to exceed 800 k. For the conditions tabulated below,
determine the maximum permissible unit thermal resistance per square meter of the
metal wall that separates the hot gas Tgh = 1300 K from the cold gas Tgc = 300 K.
Combined heat transfer coefficient on hot side h1= 200 W/m2 K Combined heat transfer
coefficient on cold side h3 = 400 W/m2 K

Figure 1.16 Physical System and Thermal Circuit.

Solution
In the steady state we can write

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Solving for R2 gives

R2 = 0.0025 m2 K/W
Example 1.11
The door for an industrial gas furnace is 2 m x 4 m in surface area and is to be
insulated to reduce heat loss to no more than 1200 W/m2. The interior surface is a 3/8-
in.-thick Inconel 600 sheet (K= 25 W/m K), and the outer surface is a l/4 in.-thick sheet
of Stainless steel 316. Between these metal sheets a suitable thickness of insulators
material is to be placed. The effective gas temperature inside the furnace is 1200°C, and
the overall heat transfer coefficient between the gas and the door is Ui = 20 W/m2 K.
The heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the door and the surroundings
at 20°C is hc= 5 W/m2 K. calculate the thickness of insulated should be use

Figure 1.17 Cross section of

composite wall of gas furnace
door

Solution
The thermal resistance of the two metal sheets are approximately 25 W/m K the thermal
resistance of the two metal sheets are approximately:

These resistances are negligible compared to the other three resistances shown in the
simplified thermal circuit below;

The temperature drop between the gas and the interior surface of the door at the

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Year

specified heat flux is:

Hence, the temperature of the In cornel will be about (1200-60)=1140°C. This is
acceptable since no appreciable load is applied. The temperature drop at the outer
surface is

The insulation thickness for k

= 0.27 W/m K is:

Dr. Sattar Aljabair 24