Units: Fundamental & derived units with particular reference to S.I.

units-
illustrations. Explanation of dimensions with examples.

Let's start with a breakdown of fundamental and derived units, particularly in the
context of the International System of Units (SI), along with explanations of
dimensions and examples:

Fundamental Units:

1. Length (meter, m): The meter is the fundamental unit of length in the SI system.
It is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a
second.
2. Mass (kilogram, kg): The kilogram is the fundamental unit of mass in the SI
system. It is defined by the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram, a
platinum-iridium alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures.
3. Time (second, s): The second is the fundamental unit of time in the SI system. It
is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state
of the cesium-133 atom.
4. Electric Current (ampere, A): The ampere is the fundamental unit of electric
current in the SI system. It is defined as the constant current that, if maintained in
two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-
section, and placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 × 10^−7 newtons per meter of length.
5. Temperature (kelvin, K): The kelvin is the fundamental unit of temperature in
the SI system. It is defined as 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the
triple point of water.
6. Amount of Substance (mole, mol): The mole is the fundamental unit of amount
of substance in the SI system. It is defined as the amount of substance that
contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, etc.) as there are atoms
in 0.012 kilograms of carbon-12.

Derived Units:

Derived units are combinations of fundamental units that express other physical
quantities.

1. Area (square meter, m^2): Derived from the fundamental unit of length, the
square meter represents the area enclosed by a square with sides of 1 meter in
length.
2. Volume (cubic meter, m^3): Derived from the fundamental unit of length, the
cubic meter represents the volume of a cube with sides of 1 meter in length.
3. Velocity (meter per second, m/s): Derived from the fundamental units of
length and time, velocity measures the rate of change of displacement over time.
4. Acceleration (meter per second squared, m/s^2): Derived from the
fundamental units of length and time, acceleration measures the rate of change of
velocity over time.
5. Force (newton, N): Derived from the fundamental units of mass, length, and
time, the newton is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of one
kilogram at a rate of one meter per second squared.

Explanation of Dimensions:

In physics, dimensions refer to the nature of physical quantities such as length,

mass, time, etc., which can be measured. Each dimension represents a distinct
aspect of physical reality. The dimensions of a physical quantity are typically
represented by square brackets, such as [M] for mass, [L] for length, [T] for time,
and so on.

For example:

 The dimensional formula of velocity is [L][T]^-1, indicating that it has dimensions

of length per unit time.
 The dimensional formula of force is [M][L][T]^-2, indicating that it has
dimensions of mass times length per unit time squared.

Understanding dimensions helps in performing dimensional analysis, which is a

powerful tool in physics for checking the consistency of equations and deriving
relationships between different physical quantities.
 UNIT :- 2

Mechanics: Explanation of vector and scalar quantities with examples.

Displacement as vector quality. Concepts of instantaneous velocity,
acceleration. Equations of motion. Definition and explanation of Laws of
motion, force, mass and weight with mathematical expressions, Universal Laws
of gravitation and Projectile motion. Explanation of circular motion, Satellite
motion in an orbit: Kepler’s Laws, escape velocity. Rigid body motion, moment
of inertia, angular momentum, torque, Centre of mass, conservation of angular
momentum. Simple harmonic motion and its geometric representation.
Derivation of its equation. Concepts of amplitude, Oscillation, time period,
frequency and phase with their mathematical expressions. Definition and
explanation of work, power and energy with mathematical relation. Problems
involving potential and kinetic energies and conservation of energy.
Conservative and non-conservative forces. Static and Dynamic friction.

1. Vector and Scalar Quantities:

 Scalar quantities are those that are fully described by a magnitude or
numerical value alone, such as mass, temperature, or speed.
 Vector quantities, on the other hand, have both magnitude and
direction, like displacement, velocity, and force.
 Example: Speed is a scalar quantity (e.g., "50 km/h"), while velocity is a
vector quantity (e.g., "50 km/h to the north").
2. Displacement as a Vector Quantity:
 Displacement is a vector quantity that represents the change in position
of an object. It has both magnitude (distance) and direction.
 Example: If an object moves 5 meters east and then 3 meters north, its
displacement from the starting point is a vector pointing northeast with a
magnitude of the straight-line distance between the initial and final
positions.
3. Instantaneous Velocity and Acceleration:
 Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object at a specific moment
in time, often represented by the derivative of the displacement with
respect to time.
 Instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity at a specific
instant in time, represented by the derivative of velocity with respect to
time.
4. Equations of Motion:
 In uniformly accelerated motion along a straight line, the equations of
motion relate displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v),
acceleration (a), and time (t).
 The three equations are:

1. �=�+��v=u+at
2. �=��+12��2s=ut+21at2
3. �2=�2+2��v2=u2+2as
5. Laws of Motion:
 Newton's Laws of Motion describe the relationship between the motion
of an object and the forces acting on it.
 First Law: An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted
upon by a net external force.
 Second Law: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass (F = ma).
 Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

6. Universal Law of Gravitation:

 Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every particle in the
universe attracts every other particle with a force proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.
7. Projectile Motion:
 Projectile motion describes the motion of objects projected into the air
and moving under the influence of gravity alone.
 The path of a projectile is a parabola.
 It can be analyzed by breaking velocity into horizontal and vertical
components.
8. Circular Motion and Satellite Motion:
 Circular motion involves an object moving in a circular path at a constant
speed.
 Kepler's Laws describe the motion of planets around the Sun.
 Escape velocity is the minimum velocity required for an object to escape
the gravitational pull of a celestial body.
9. Rigid Body Motion:
 In rigid body motion, all particles of a body move in such a way that the
distance between any two particles remains constant.
  Moment of inertia, angular momentum, torque, and center of mass are
important concepts in rigid body motion.
10. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):
 Simple harmonic motion is a type of periodic motion where the restoring
force is directly proportional to the displacement.
 The equation of SHM is �=�sin⁡(��+�)x=Asin(ωt+ϕ), where �A

is the amplitude, �ω is the angular frequency, �t is time, and �ϕ is

the phase angle.
11. Work, Power, and Energy:
 Work is the product of force and displacement in the direction of the
force.
 Power is the rate at which work is done.
 Energy is the capacity to do work and is conserved in a closed system.

12. Friction:
 Static friction occurs when two surfaces are stationary relative to each
other.
 Dynamic friction occurs when two surfaces are sliding relative to each
other.

These are foundational concepts in mechanics, providing the framework for

understanding the motion of objects and the forces acting upon them.
 UNIT :- 3

Properties of Solids: Definition and explanation of strain, stress, elastic limit,

ultimate strength, Hooke’s Law and Young’s modulus. Compression bending,
twisting and shear. Elastic moduli and their relations, Poisson’s ratio. Concepts
and examples of properties e.g. hardness, malleability, ductility, brittleness,
toughness abrasion resistance, fatigue.

1. Strain and Stress:

 Strain refers to the measure of deformation or change in shape
experienced by a solid under the application of an external force.
 Stress is the force applied per unit area on a solid, causing deformation.

 They are related by Hooke's Law for small deformations:

Stress=Young’s Modulus×StrainStress=Young’s Modulus×Strain.

2. Elastic Limit and Ultimate Strength:
 Elastic Limit: The maximum stress a material can withstand without
permanent deformation after the force is removed.
 Ultimate Strength: The maximum stress a material can withstand before
failure.
3. Hooke's Law and Young's Modulus:
 Hooke's Law: It states that the strain produced in a solid is directly
proportional to the stress applied to it within the elastic limit.
 Young's Modulus (E): It is a measure of the stiffness of a material and
represents the ratio of stress to strain in the linear elastic region of the
stress-strain curve.
4. Compression, Bending, Twisting, and Shear:
 Compression: When forces act to compress or shorten a material along
its axis.
 Bending: Occurs when forces are applied perpendicular to the axis of a
solid, causing it to bend.
 Twisting: The application of torque or rotational force, causing twisting
deformation.
 Shear: It refers to the deformation of a material caused by parallel forces
acting in opposite directions.
5. Elastic Moduli and Poisson's Ratio:
 Elastic Moduli: These are measures of a material's response to
deformation under stress.
 Young's Modulus (E) for tensile or compressive stress.
  Shear Modulus (G) for shear stress.
 Bulk Modulus (K) for volumetric stress.

 Poisson's Ratio: It describes the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal

strain when a material is stretched.
6. Properties Examples:
 Hardness: Resistance to indentation or scratching, e.g., diamond is hard.
 Malleability: Ability to deform under compression, e.g., gold is
malleable.
 Ductility: Ability to deform under tensile stress, e.g., copper is ductile.
 Brittleness: Tendency to fracture under stress without significant
deformation, e.g., glass is brittle.
 Toughness: Ability to absorb energy before fracturing, e.g., steel is
tough.
 Abrasion Resistance: Resistance to wear and tear due to friction, e.g.,
tungsten carbide is abrasion-resistant.
 Fatigue: The weakening of a material due to repeated loading and
unloading cycles, e.g., metals under cyclic stress.
 UNIT :- 4
Properties of Liquids: Thrust of a liquid and pressure, Pressure at different depths,
Pascal’s Law and Hydraulic press, Buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle: definition and
explanation with illustration; surface tension, viscosity, fluidity and volatility.
1. Thrust of a Liquid and Pressure:
 The thrust of a liquid refers to the force exerted by a liquid due to its weight
and density.
 Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid on the walls of its
container or any object immersed in it.
 Pressure (P) can be calculated as �=��P=AF, where F is the force exerted
and A is the area over which the force is applied.
2. Pressure at Different Depths:
 Pressure increases with depth in a liquid due to the weight of the liquid above.
 The pressure at a certain depth in a liquid can be calculated using Pascal's Law.
3. Pascal's Law and Hydraulic Press:
 Pascal's Law states that a change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its
container.
 Hydraulic press utilizes Pascal's Law to multiply force by transmitting pressure
through an enclosed fluid. It is commonly used in industries for various
applications like bending, pressing, and lifting heavy objects.
4. Buoyancy and Archimedes' Principle:
 Buoyancy is the upward force exerted by a fluid on an object immersed in it,
counteracting the force of gravity.
 Archimedes' Principle states that the buoyant force exerted on an object
submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
 Illustration: When an object is submerged in water, it displaces an amount of
water equal to its own volume. The weight of this displaced water creates an
upward force, buoying the object.
5. Surface Tension:
 Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to minimize its
surface area, resulting in a thin "skin" on the liquid's surface.
 It is caused by cohesive forces between liquid molecules at the surface.
 Example: Water droplets forming spherical shapes due to surface tension.
6. Viscosity:
 Viscosity is the measure of a liquid's resistance to flow or deformation.
 High viscosity liquids flow slowly, while low viscosity liquids flow more easily.
 Example: Honey has high viscosity, while water has low viscosity.
7. Fluidity:
 Fluidity refers to how easily a liquid flows.
  It is influenced by viscosity and temperature.
 Example: Water has high fluidity as it flows easily, while molasses has lower
fluidity due to its high viscosity.
8. Volatility:
 Volatility refers to how readily a liquid vaporizes.
 Liquids with high volatility evaporate quickly, while those with low volatility
evaporate slowly.
 Example: Alcohol is highly volatile, while oil is less volatile.
 UNIT :- 5
Heat & Thermodynamics: Heat and temperature, Construction of mercury
thermometers. Measurement, measuring scales and devices. Definition and
explanation of linear expansion. Area and volume expansion with mathematical
relation. Expansion of gas at constant temperature and at constant pressure. Ideal
gas equation. Measurement of specific heat capacity, relation between Cp and Cv,
Isothermal and adiabatic process. Explanation of change of state of matter with
change of temperature. Definition of latent heat of fusion and vaporization and
numerical examples. Transfer of heat, Explanation and examples of conduction,
Convection and radiation processes. Thermal conductivity. Idea of black body
radiation. Stefan Boltzmann Law. Explanation of first and second laws of
Thermodynamics with examples.
1. Heat and Temperature:
 Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies due to a
temperature difference.
 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a
substance.
2. Construction of Mercury Thermometers:
 Mercury thermometers consist of a glass tube filled with mercury, which
expands or contracts with changes in temperature.
 The markings on the thermometer scale are calibrated based on the expansion
of mercury.
3. Linear Expansion:
 Linear expansion occurs when a solid expands or contracts along a single axis
in response to changes in temperature.
 The change in length (Δ�ΔL) of a material is proportional to its original length
(�0L0) and the change in temperature (Δ�ΔT), governed by the equation:
Δ�=��0Δ�ΔL=αL0ΔT, where �α is the coefficient of linear expansion.
4. Area and Volume Expansion:
 Area and volume expansion occur when solids expand or contract in two or
three dimensions, respectively, due to changes in temperature.
 The change in area (Δ�ΔA) and volume (Δ�ΔV) are governed by similar
equations involving the coefficients of area and volume expansion.
5. Expansion of Gas and Ideal Gas Equation:
 The expansion of gas at constant temperature is described by Gay-Lussac's
Law, while expansion at constant pressure is described by Charles's Law.
 The ideal gas equation relates the pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature
(T) of a gas: ��=���PV=nRT, where n is the number of moles of gas and R
is the gas constant.
6. Specific Heat Capacity and Cp vs. Cv:
  Specific heat capacity (c) is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one unit mass of a substance by one degree Celsius.
 ��Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure, while ��Cv is the
specific heat capacity at constant volume.
 For an ideal gas, ��−��=�Cp−Cv=R.
7. Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes:
 Isothermal process: Occurs at constant temperature, where �=�Q=W (heat
added equals work done).
 Adiabatic process: Occurs with no heat exchange with the surroundings
(�=0Q=0), where work done changes the internal energy of the system.
8. Change of State and Latent Heat:
 Change of state refers to the transition between different states of matter
(solid, liquid, gas) due to changes in temperature or pressure.
 Latent heat of fusion and vaporization is the heat absorbed or released during
the transition between solid-liquid and liquid-gas phases, respectively.
9. Transfer of Heat:
 Conduction: Heat transfer through direct contact between particles.
 Convection: Heat transfer through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases).
 Radiation: Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves, without the need for
a medium.
10. Thermal Conductivity and Black Body Radiation:
 Thermal conductivity is a measure of a material's ability to conduct heat.
 A black body is an idealized object that absorbs all radiation incident upon it
and emits radiation according to its temperature.
11. Stefan-Boltzmann Law and Laws of Thermodynamics:
 Stefan-Boltzmann Law describes the power radiated from a black body in
terms of its temperature.
 The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.
 The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated
system can never decrease over time.
 UNIT :- 6
SOUND: Wave motion, Concept of longitudinal and transverse waves; Definition of
period, frequency, wave length, amplitude and phase; Speed of sound wave; wave
propagation in a medium; Doppler effect. Properties of sound waves, Reflection,
Refraction and Superposition of waves, stationary waves, beats, Vibration of Strings
and Air columns, concept of resonance; Echo, Reverberation.
1. Wave Motion:
 Sound propagates through wave motion, where particles of the medium
oscillate back and forth.
 Waves carry energy from one place to another without the transfer of matter.
2. Longitudinal and Transverse Waves:
 In longitudinal waves, particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the
direction of wave propagation.
 In transverse waves, particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.
3. Key Definitions:
 Period (T): The time taken for one complete cycle of the wave.
 Frequency (f): The number of cycles of a wave passing a point in one second
(measured in Hertz, Hz).
 Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive points in a wave that
are in phase.
 Amplitude: The maximum displacement of particles from their equilibrium
position in a wave.
 Phase: Describes the position of a point on a wave cycle at a specific time.
4. Speed of Sound Wave:
 The speed of sound depends on the medium through which it travels, with air
at room temperature having a speed of approximately 343 meters per second.
 It is given by the equation: �=��v=ρB, where �B is the bulk modulus of the
medium and �ρ is its density.
5. Wave Propagation in a Medium:
 Sound waves travel through compression and rarefaction of particles in a
medium.
 They propagate as mechanical waves, requiring a medium for transmission.
6. Doppler Effect:
 The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave in
relation to an observer moving relative to the source of the wave.
 It causes a shift in frequency when the source of sound or the observer is in
motion.
7. Properties of Sound Waves:
 Reflection: Sound waves bounce off surfaces and change direction.
  Refraction: Sound waves change direction as they pass from one medium to
another due to changes in the speed of sound.
 Superposition: When two or more waves overlap, their displacements add
algebraically at each point.
8. Stationary Waves and Beats:
 Stationary Waves: Formed by the interference of two waves with the same
frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite directions.
 Beats: The periodic variation in loudness heard when two sound waves of
slightly different frequencies interfere.
9. Vibration of Strings and Air Columns:
 Sound can be produced by vibrating strings or air columns, creating specific
frequencies or pitches.
 The vibration frequency depends on the length, tension, and mass of the
vibrating medium.
10. Resonance:
 Resonance occurs when an object vibrates at its natural frequency in response
to an external force of the same frequency.
 It amplifies sound and can lead to the destruction of structures if not properly
managed.
11. Echo and Reverberation:
 Echo: A reflected sound wave arriving at the listener's ear after a delay,
typically due to sound reflecting off distant surfaces.
 Reverberation: Multiple reflections of sound that persist after the original
sound source has stopped, creating a continuous sound effect.
 UNIT:- 7

LIGHT: Explanation of light wave, wave front, ray, velocity of light. Laws of reflection,
reflection in different types of mirrors (plane, spherical, cylindrical, parabolic) with
their geometrical drawing. Definition of image, focal length, radius of curvature,
magnification with formula, numerical examples and application. Laws of refraction,
refractive index, total internal reflection, concave and convex lenses and image
formation through them, formula connecting object and image distances,
application in telescopes, microscopes, theodolite etc., refraction through prism.
1. Light Wave:
 Light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields.
 It travels in a straight line in a vacuum at a constant speed of approximately 3
x 10^8 meters per second (c).
2. Wavefront, Ray, and Velocity of Light:
 Wavefront: A surface representing points of equal phase of a wave at a given
instant.
 Ray: A directed line indicating the direction of propagation of light.
 Velocity of Light: The speed at which light travels through a medium. In a
vacuum, it is approximately 3 x 10^8 meters per second.
3. Laws of Reflection:
 First Law: The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface at
the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 Second Law: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
4. Reflection in Different Types of Mirrors:
 Plane Mirror: Produces virtual, upright, and laterally inverted images.
 Spherical Mirror: Concave mirrors converge light rays, while convex mirrors
diverge them.
 Cylindrical Mirror: Cylindrical mirrors produce a line image.
 Parabolic Mirror: Used in applications requiring parallel rays to be focused at
a single point (e.g., satellite dishes).
5. Geometrical Concepts:
 Image: The reproduction of an object formed by reflection or refraction of
light.
 Focal Length: The distance between the focus and the mirror or lens.
 Radius of Curvature: The distance between the center of curvature and the
mirror or lens.
 Magnification: The ratio of the height of the image to the height of the
object.
6. Laws of Refraction:
  First Law: The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the surface at
the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 Second Law (Snell's Law): sin⁡(�1)sin⁡(�2)=�1�2=�2�1sin(θ2)sin(θ1)=v2v1
=n1n2, where �1θ1 and �2θ2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, �1v1
and �2v2 are the velocities of light in the two media, and �1n1 and �2n2 are
the refractive indices of the two media.
7. Refraction Through Lenses and Prism:
 Convex Lens: Converges light rays and forms real or virtual images depending
on the object's position.
 Concave Lens: Diverges light rays and forms only virtual images.
 Prism: Causes light to deviate from its original path, dispersing light into its
component colors (dispersion).
8. Electromagnetic Waves:
 Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves consisting of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of wave propagation.
 They can travel through vacuum at the speed of light (c) and through
various mediums with different velocities.
9. Wave Nature of Light:
 Light exhibits wave-like behavior, as demonstrated by its ability to
interfere, diffract, and undergo polarization.
 The wave theory of light explains phenomena such as interference,
diffraction, and polarization.
10. Young's Double-Slit Experiment:
 Young's experiment demonstrates the wave nature of light by observing
interference patterns produced by light passing through two closely
spaced slits.
 Constructive interference occurs where waves from the two slits are in
phase, producing bright fringes, while destructive interference occurs
where they are out of phase, producing dark fringes.
11. Fringe Width:
 The fringe width in Young's experiment is the distance between two
consecutive bright or dark fringes.
 It depends on the wavelength of light (λ), the distance between the slits
(d), and the distance from the slits to the screen (L).
12. Single Slit Diffraction:
 Single slit diffraction occurs when light passes through a narrow slit,
producing a pattern of bright and dark fringes.
 The central maximum is the brightest, with successive minima becoming
fainter.
  The angular width of the central maximum and the intensity distribution
of the diffraction pattern depend on the width of the slit and the
wavelength of light.
13. Polarization:
 Polarization is the phenomenon in which the oscillations of
electromagnetic waves are restricted to a particular plane.
 Unpolarized light contains waves vibrating in all planes perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
 Polarizing filters can selectively transmit light waves oscillating in a
specific direction, allowing for the control and manipulation of light.
 UNIT :- 8
Electrostatics: Explanation of charge on the basis of electron theory, charging by
friction, force between electric charges, concept of unit charge, electric field and
electric potential, p.d. and its measurement, definition of capacitance of parallel
plate capacitor, capacitors in series and parallel. Dielectric constant.
1. Charge on the Basis of Electron Theory:
 Charge is a fundamental property of matter, which can be positive or negative.
 According to the electron theory, objects become charged when electrons are
transferred between them, resulting in an imbalance of positive and negative
charges.
2. Charging by Friction:
 Charging by friction occurs when two objects rub against each other, causing
electrons to transfer from one object to the other.
 The object that gains electrons becomes negatively charged, while the object
that loses electrons becomes positively charged.
3. Force Between Electric Charges:
 The force between two point charges �1q1 and �2q2 is given by Coulomb's
Law: �=��1�2�2F=kr2q1q2, where �k is Coulomb's constant and �r is the
distance between the charges.
4. Concept of Unit Charge:
 The unit of charge is the coulomb (C), which is defined as the charge carried by
approximately 6.242×10186.242×1018 electrons.
 The charge of a single electron or proton is approximately
1.602×10−191.602×10−19 coulombs.
5. Electric Field and Electric Potential:
 Electric Field: An electric field is a region around a charged object where a
test charge experiences a force. It is defined as the force per unit charge.
 Electric Potential: Electric potential (V) is the work done per unit charge in
bringing a positive test charge from infinity to a point in the electric field.
6. Potential Difference (P.D.) and its Measurement:
 Potential difference, or voltage, is the difference in electric potential between
two points in an electric field.
 It is measured in volts (V) and can be measured using a voltmeter.
7. Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor:
 Capacitance (C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge per unit
voltage.
 For a parallel plate capacitor, capacitance is given by �=�0��C=dϵ0A, where
�0ϵ0 is the vacuum permittivity, A is the area of the plates, and d is the
separation between them.
8. Capacitors in Series and Parallel:
  Capacitors in series have an equivalent capacitance given by
1���=1�1+1�2+1�3+⋯Ceq1=C11+C21+C31+⋯.
 Capacitors in parallel have an equivalent capacitance given by
���=�1+�2+�3+⋯Ceq=C1+C2+C3+⋯.
9. Dielectric Constant:
 The dielectric constant (κ) is a measure of a material's ability to reduce the
electric field between the plates of a capacitor when placed between them.
 It is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric to its
capacitance without a dielectric.
 UNIT :- 9
Current Electricity: Definition of e.m.f, potential difference, and current with
illustrations. Basic direct current circuits: Units of current, resistance and
conductance, Ohm’s Law and solution of simple problems, effect of temperature on
resistance. Series and parallel connections of resistors. Kirchoff’s rules, their
applications and examples.
1. Definition of e.m.f, Potential Difference, and Current:
 Electromotive Force (e.m.f): The electromotive force (ε) of a source is the
energy per unit charge supplied by the source to move positive charge carriers
around a complete circuit. It is measured in volts (V).
 Potential Difference (Voltage): The potential difference (V) between two
points in an electric circuit is the work done per unit charge in moving positive
charge from one point to another against the electric field. It is also measured
in volts (V).
 Current: Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge in a conductor. It is measured
in amperes (A) and is defined as the amount of charge passing through a
cross-section of a conductor per unit time.
2. Basic Direct Current Circuits:
 Units: Current is measured in amperes (A), resistance is measured in ohms (Ω),
and conductance is measured in siemens (S).
 Ohm's Law: Ohm's Law states that the current through a conductor between
two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points and
inversely proportional to the resistance between them. It is mathematically
represented as �=��V=IR, where V is the voltage, I is the current, and R is
the resistance.
 Effect of Temperature on Resistance: In general, the resistance of a
conductor increases with an increase in temperature. This is due to the
increased vibration of atoms in the conductor, which impedes the flow of
electrons.
3. Series and Parallel Connections of Resistors:
 Series Connection: Resistors are connected end-to-end so that the same
current flows through each resistor. The total resistance in a series circuit is the
sum of the individual resistances.
 Parallel Connection: Resistors are connected across the same two points,
providing multiple paths for the current to flow. The reciprocal of the total
resistance in a parallel circuit is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
4. Kirchhoff's Rules:
  Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL): At any junction in an electrical circuit, the
total current flowing into the junction is equal to the total current flowing out
of the junction.
 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of the voltages around any
closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero. This law is based on the conservation
of energy.

UNIT :- 10
Magnetic Properties of Materials: Type of magnetic substances, magnetic flux, flux
density, relative permeability, magnetic properties of soft iron and steel.
1. Types of Magnetic Substances:
 Diamagnetic Materials: These materials have no permanent magnetic dipole
moment and are weakly repelled by a magnetic field. Examples include copper,
silver, and gold.
 Paramagnetic Materials: Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons,
resulting in a weak attraction to a magnetic field. Examples include aluminum,
platinum, and oxygen.
 Ferromagnetic Materials: Ferromagnetic materials exhibit strong and
permanent magnetization in the presence of a magnetic field. Examples
include iron, cobalt, and nickel.
 Ferrimagnetic Materials: Ferrimagnetic materials have permanent
magnetization but exhibit unequal magnetic moments that result in a net
magnetization. Examples include magnetite (Fe3O4) and ferrites.
 Antiferromagnetic Materials: These materials have neighboring magnetic
moments that align antiparallel to each other, resulting in a net magnetic
moment of zero. Examples include manganese oxide (MnO) and chromium
oxide (Cr2O3).
2. Magnetic Flux and Flux Density:
 Magnetic Flux (Φ): Magnetic flux is a measure of the quantity of magnetic
field passing through a surface. It is measured in webers (Wb).
 Flux Density (B): Flux density, also known as magnetic induction or magnetic
field strength, measures the strength of the magnetic field at a given point. It
is measured in teslas (T).
3. Relative Permeability:
 Relative permeability (μᵣ) is a measure of how easily a material can be
magnetized in the presence of a magnetic field compared to a vacuum or free
space.
 It is defined as the ratio of the permeability of the material to the permeability
of free space (μ₀).
  Ferromagnetic materials typically have much higher relative permeability
values compared to other materials.
4. Magnetic Properties of Soft Iron and Steel:
 Soft Iron: Soft iron is a ferromagnetic material that can be easily magnetized
and demagnetized. It is used in temporary magnets, electromagnets, and
transformer cores due to its high permeability and low coercivity.
 Steel: Steel is also ferromagnetic but has higher coercivity compared to soft
iron, making it more suitable for permanent magnets. Various types of steel
alloys are used in permanent magnets, such as Alnico (Aluminum-Nickel-
Cobalt) and Ferrite (Iron-Oxide) magnets.
 UNIT :- 11
Electromagnetism: Nature of magnetic field due to a straight conductor, a circular
conductor and a solenoid, Fleming’s left hand and right hand rules, Effect of current
flowing through two parallel conductors, Biot - Savart Law.
1. Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Conductor:
 A straight current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. The
direction of the magnetic field can be determined using the right-hand rule:
 If you grasp the conductor with your right hand such that your thumb
points in the direction of the current, your curled fingers will indicate the
direction of the magnetic field lines around the conductor.
2. Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Conductor:
 A circular current-carrying conductor also produces a magnetic field. The
magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the conductor.
 The direction of the magnetic field can be determined using the right-hand
rule mentioned earlier.
3. Magnetic Field Due to a Solenoid:
 A solenoid is a coil of wire wound in the shape of a cylinder. When current
flows through a solenoid, it produces a magnetic field similar to that of a bar
magnet.
 Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field lines run parallel to the axis of the coil.
Outside the solenoid, the magnetic field lines resemble those of a bar magnet.
4. Fleming's Left-Hand and Right-Hand Rules:
 Fleming's Left-Hand Rule: It is used to determine the direction of force on a
current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. When the forefinger,
middle finger, and thumb of the left hand are mutually perpendicular, the
forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the middle finger
points in the direction of current, and the thumb points in the direction of
force.
 Fleming's Right-Hand Rule: It is used to determine the direction of induced
current or electromagnetic induction. It is similar to the right-hand rule
mentioned earlier for determining the direction of a magnetic field around a
current-carrying conductor.
5. Effect of Current Flowing Through Two Parallel Conductors:
 When two parallel current-carrying conductors are placed close to each other,
they interact magnetically. The magnetic field produced by one conductor
affects the other conductor, resulting in an attractive or repulsive force
between them, depending on the direction of the currents.
6. Biot-Savart Law:
 The Biot-Savart Law describes the magnetic field produced by a steady current
in a wire.
  It states that the magnetic field at a point due to a small element of current-
carrying wire is directly proportional to the current, the length of the element,
and the sine of the angle between the element and the line joining the
element to the point where the field is being calculated.

UNIT :- 12
Electromagnetic induction: e. m. f. induced in a coil by magnet, Faraday’s law of
induction, Calculation of e.m.f., Direction of induced e .m .f. Lenz’s Law, Explanation
of eddy current and explanation of self and Mutual induction, Calculation of self and
mutual inductance. Generation of alternating e.m.f. Concept of reactance : Capacitive
and inductive, Impedance. Simple a.c. circuits analysis.
1. e.m.f. Induced in a Coil by a Magnet:
 When a coil of wire is moved through a magnetic field or when there is a
change in the magnetic field passing through the coil, an electromotive force
(e.m.f.) is induced in the coil.
 This phenomenon is the basis of electromagnetic induction and is commonly
demonstrated by moving a magnet towards or away from a coil.
2. Faraday's Law of Induction:
 Faraday's law states that the induced electromotive force (e.m.f.) in a closed
loop is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux passing
through the loop.
 Mathematically, it is expressed as �=−�Φ��ϵ=−dtdΦ, where �ϵ is the
induced e.m.f., ΦΦ is the magnetic flux, and �Φ��dtdΦ represents the rate of
change of magnetic flux with time.
3. Direction of Induced e.m.f.:
 The direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by Lenz's Law, which states that the
induced e.m.f. always opposes the change in magnetic flux that produces it.
 This means that the induced current or e.m.f. will always try to counteract the
change in magnetic flux that caused it.
4. Lenz's Law:
 Lenz's Law provides the direction of the induced current or e.m.f. in a
conductor due to a changing magnetic field.
 It ensures that energy is conserved and prevents infinite energy generation
from induction.
5. Eddy Currents:
 Eddy currents are circulating currents induced in conductive materials (such as
metal) when exposed to a changing magnetic field.
 These currents produce heat and are undesirable in many applications but can
also be harnessed for electromagnetic braking and induction heating.
6. Self and Mutual Induction:
 Self-Induction: Self-induction occurs when the changing magnetic field
produced by a current in a coil induces an e.m.f. in the same coil.
 Mutual Induction: Mutual induction occurs when the changing magnetic field
produced by one coil induces an e.m.f. in an adjacent coil.
7. Calculation of Self and Mutual Inductance:
 Self-inductance (L) is a measure of a coil's ability to induce an e.m.f. in itself
when the current through it changes.
 Mutual inductance (M) is a measure of a coil's ability to induce an e.m.f. in an
adjacent coil when the current in one coil changes.
 Mathematically, they are expressed as �=�Φ�L=INΦ and �=��1�2M=kL1
L2, respectively, where �N is the number of turns, ΦΦ is the magnetic flux, �I
is the current, and �k is the coefficient of coupling.
8. Generation of Alternating e.m.f.:
 Alternating e.m.f. is generated by rotating a coil within a magnetic field or by
using a rotating magnet within a stationary coil.
 This process is the basis of generating alternating current (AC) in electrical
generators.
9. Concept of Reactance and Impedance:
 Capacitive Reactance: Capacitive reactance (Xc) is the opposition offered by a
capacitor to the flow of alternating current. It is inversely proportional to
frequency and capacitance.
 Inductive Reactance: Inductive reactance (Xl) is the opposition offered by an
inductor to the flow of alternating current. It is directly proportional to
frequency and inductance.
 Impedance: Impedance (Z) is the total opposition offered by a circuit to the
flow of alternating current. It is the vector sum of resistance (R), inductive
reactance (Xl), and capacitive reactance (Xc).
10. Simple AC Circuits Analysis:
 Simple AC circuits analysis involves calculating the total impedance (Z) and the
phase relationship between voltage and current in AC circuits using Ohm's Law
and the principles of phasors.
 UNIT :- 13
Modern Physics: Photoelectric effect, structure of atom, atoms and molecules,
intermolecular forces, chemical bonding. Crystal structure with simple examples.
Radio-activity: Explanation of fission and fusion processes.
Semiconductors: Properties and basic principles, p and n types, Action of transistors.
1. Photoelectric Effect:
 The photoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon where electrons are
emitted from a material when it is exposed to light of sufficient frequency or
energy.
 It provided evidence for the particle-like nature of light (photons) and led to
the development of quantum theory.
2. Structure of Atom:
 The structure of an atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and
neutrons, surrounded by electrons in orbitals or energy levels.
 The nucleus is positively charged due to the protons, while the electrons are
negatively charged and orbit the nucleus.
3. Atoms and Molecules:
 Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter, consisting of a nucleus
surrounded by electrons.
 Molecules are formed when two or more atoms are chemically bonded
together.
4. Intermolecular Forces and Chemical Bonding:
 Intermolecular forces are attractive or repulsive forces between molecules.
 Chemical bonding involves the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms
to form chemical compounds.
5. Crystal Structure:
 Crystals are solids with a regular and repeating arrangement of atoms, ions, or
molecules in a three-dimensional lattice structure.
 Examples include salt (NaCl) and diamond (C).
6. Radioactivity:
 Fission: Fission is the splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into two or more
lighter nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. It is the process used in
nuclear power plants and atomic bombs.
 Fusion: Fusion is the process where two light atomic nuclei combine to form a
heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. It is the process
that powers the sun and stars.
7. Semiconductors:
 Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity between conductors
(metals) and insulators (non-metals).
  They have a band gap that can be manipulated to control their conductivity.
 Semiconductors are used in electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits.
8. p and n Types of Semiconductors:
 p-Type Semiconductors: Doped with acceptor impurities to create positive
charge carriers (holes).
 n-Type Semiconductors: Doped with donor impurities to create negative
charge carriers (electrons).
9. Action of Transistors:
 Transistors are semiconductor devices used to amplify or switch electronic
signals.
 They consist of three layers of semiconductor material: the emitter, base, and
collector.