A transition element is defined as a d-block element that forms multiple stable ions with incomplete d

orbitals.

So a metal can only be transition element if the ions have d-orbitals that are incomplete.
Zinc is not classified as a transition metal. This is because the only stable Zinc ion has the electronic
configuration [Ar] 3d^10

So only Zinc has stable ion of 3d^10 fully complete d-orbital

Transition metals form stable ions that have partially filled d orbitals. So incomplete filled d orbitals
when stable ion is formed.
Stable ion condition: when outermost energy level does not comprise of any electrons.

Mercury element is a d orbital metal. This is because its last electrons are in the 5d orbital. However
Mercury is not a transition element this is because its stable ion does not have INCOMPLETE d orbital.
Incomplete orbitals are more energetically stable
Transition metals have maximum oxidation number when all its electrons in its 4s and 3d orbitals are
removed.

A ligand species is a species that can donate a lone pair of electrons and form dative covalent bonds
with the central metal ion.
Cyanide CN is a monodentate ligand.
C2O4 is a called the oxalate ligand. And it is bidentate ligand.
EDTA is a polydentate ligand.

Coordination number is the total number of dative bonds made by the central metal
Bidentate ligand has 2 coordination number each so 2 dative bonds by the central metal cation.

(en) ligand is a bidentate ligand with 2 coordination numbers.

6 coordination numbers so there are 6 dative covalent bonds surrounding the Chromium ion.

6 dative covalent bonds take place due to the dative bonding between the LONE pairs of Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Chromium.
This is called the Cis-platin used as treatment for cancer
It is a Cis structure as the Chlorines and Ammonias are on each sides same sides of one another
Cis-platin has a square planar structure like in structure X and not a tetrahedral structure like shown
in structure Z.

Also it is a cis-isomer so the Chlorines and Ammonias are on the same sides.

Remember that there are Charged and Neutral ligands

Each Oxygen ligand has a charge of -2
Each Chloride/halogen ligand has a charge of -1
Each Cyanide CN ligand has a charge of -1
WATER ligand is neutral

Remember when any cation is datively bonded with Halogen ligand then it is a tetrahedral so 4
ligands.
And when WATER and AMMONIA ligands are datively bonded with cation then we form an octahedral
structure. So there are 6 coordination numbers so 6 dative covalent bonds.

And a cation with Halogen ligand has 4 coordination number so 4 dative covalent bonds.

A monodentate ligand is a ligand that forms one dative bond to the Fe+2 central cation.
The water acts as a ligand this is because the lone pair of electrons from the OXYGEN in the water
H2O molecules forms a dative COVALENT BOND with the central Fe+2 cation.

Remember that the OXYGEN in the water (H2O) lone pair forms the DATIVE COVALENT BOND with
the central Fe+2 central cation and not the WHOLE water molecule.

The shape of this Fe(H2O)6 structure would be an OCTAHEDRAL shape. This would be this shape for
minimum repulsion between 6 pairs of shared electrons.

We have this shape to cause minimum repulsion between 6 pairs of shared electrons. (we say shared
pairs of electrons as saying the 6 dative COVALENT bonds between Fe and Water molecule).

[CuCl4] transition metal structure is a tetrahedral structure this is because it forms 4 dative covalent
bonds with Chlorine (halogens with cation always tetrahedral)

EDTA is a polydentate ligand so 1 has 6 coordination numbers. So it will be a OCTAHEDRAL structure.

[Pt(NH3)2Cl2] this transition metal structure would forms SQUARE planar structure. REMEMEBR this
is a cis-platin structure PLATINUM transition metal structures have 4 coordination numbers however
are in fact SQUARE PLANAR.
[Pt(NH3)2Cl2] this cis-platin structure is SQUARE PLANAR

[CrCl4] structure is TETRAHEDRAL. The reason why 4 Chlorines are tetrahedral this is because the
CHLORINED ion is large and needs to be as far away from each other. So there is MINIMUM repulsion.

The bonding between LIGANDS and CENTRAL atom in these complexes are always DATIVE COVALENT

When asking the bonding between LIGAND and CENTRAL atom is dative covalent as that is how the
ligands are bonded with central cation atom. Not through any other bonding.
When asked about the BONDING within the transition metal COMPLEXES. This is taking about all the
bonding BETWEEN MOLECULES and between LIGANDS and central cation.

So there will be COVALENT bonding in between the WATER (H2O) and the AMMONIA (NH3)
molecules.

Also there will be DATIVE COVALENT BONDING between these Water (H2O) and Ammonia (NH3)
ligands and central CATION atom.

For there to be the most positive increase in Entropy of System. We should go from a monodentate
ligand to a polydentate ligand, and the coordination number should increase or stay the same. So
when it goes from H2O ligand to EDTA which is a polydentate ligand. There will also be the same
number of COORDINATION NUMBER and COORDINATION NUMBER per ligand.

So for there to be the most positive increase in Entropy of System we should use a POLYDENTATE
ligand.
Any metal that is not a transition metal will form a COLORLESS complex. Note that Zinc is not a
transition metal.

They have linear shape with bond angle 180 degree

This is so there is minimum repulsion between two bonded pairs of electrons
Because the NH3 ligand is neutral so the Ag silver charge is +1
ALWAYS REMEMBER when talking about d-orbitals to always talk about stable ion. So Ag+ has a full
4d10 subshell. So all 4d orbitals are filled. So electrons cannot be excited to higher d orbitals.

This is because Octahedral transition metals have there d orbitals split into 2 high energy orbitals and
3 low energy orbitals.

Remember: There will only be color when the d subshell is incomplete when d-orbitals are incomplete
so that lower energy d orbitals can excite into higher energy d orbitals. Which causes color to be
formed.

Only for octahedral transition metals do d orbitals split into 3 low energy d-orbitals and 2 high energy
d-orbitals.

And the amount of energy the electron absorbs depends on the energy level difference between the
two d subshell energy levels.
This is because whenever a ligand is attached to a transtion metal cation to form a metal complex. It
causes the d orbitals to split into high energy and low energy. For example if the energy level
difference between d orbitals is small then low energy would be needed so RED light would be
absorbed and thus the light that is TRANSMITTED from the metal cation would be BLUE.

So different ligands have varying energy level difference between d orbitals. So light of different
frequencies is absorbed so different light frequencies are transmitted to give different colors.

VO+2 is blue
Co(H2O)6 is pink
Cr(H2O)6 is blue
Cu(H2O)6 is blue
Remember Chromate CrO4^-2 is a yellow solution

When Chromate complex reacts with Hydrogen Preoxide (H2O2) it will form Chromate ion which is a
yellow solution.

VO2^+1 is a yellow solution

VO^+2 is a blue solution
V^+3 green solution
V^+2 purple solution
When we add excess NH3 (ammonia) we form this DEEP BLUE SOLUTION [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]^+2 so
the charge of the complex stays the same as the CATION of Copper.
The rest. Chromium and Zinc produce [X(NH3)6]^+y

Only Chromium and Zinc ppt dissolve in EXCESS OH- and NH3
Chromium with EXCESS OH- forms green solution. Chromium with EXCESS NH3 forms purple solution
Zinc with EXCESS OH- and NH3 forms white precipitate. [Zn(H2O)2(OH)4]^-2 and [Zn(NH3)6]+2
[Cobalt(H2O)6] reacts with 4Cl- it forms a [CoCl4]^-2 and 6H2O.
Thus there is a color change from Pink to Blue.

Remember when it says Cobalt(II) Sulfate it is just essentially [Co(H2O)6]^+2

[Co(H2O)6]^+2 is octahedral

When HCl is added a tetrahedral structure [CoCl4}^-2 is formed. This is because chloride ions are large
and only 4 dative covalent bonds around Cobalt (II).

[Ni(H2O)6]+2 this would be a GREEN solution

Nickel precipitate formed from the addition of AMMONIA solution of NaOH solution causes
deprotonation which forms a GREEN ppt. [Ni(H2O)4(OH)2]

On addition of EXCESS ammonia ligand exchange occurs

Forming a deep blue solution

No change from addition of excess NaOH
Cobalt(H2O)6 is a pink solution
Cobalt precipitate is a BLUE precipitate

Cobalt(H2O)6 with EXCESS NH3 ammonia forms a YELLOW-BROWN solution.

Cobalt(H2O)6 with Cl- (HCl) forms a BLUE solution [CoCl4]^-2

Cobalt: Pink solution ---> Blue precipitate ---> Yellow-Brown solution

Fe+3: Green Solution ---> Green precipitate -----> (after leaving it out in air) Brown precipitate
Fe+2: Yellow-brown solution ---> Brown precipitate

Mn+2: Pink solution ---> Brown precipitate -----> (after leaving it out in air) dark Brown precipitate
Co+2: Pink solution ----> Blue precipitate (in air pink) ----> Yellow-Brown precipitate
We know that it is a PALE green salt (PPT) so thus we add FeCl2.
As Fe+2 forms Green ppt, Fe+3 forms Brown ppt

Iron central atom has charge of +2. As a green PPT is formed.

Iron(II) as catalyst and oxides from the S2O8^-2
Catalyst increases rate of reaction this is because catalyst involves reaction of oppositely charged ions
which lowers the ACTIVATION energy.

Both Fe+2 and Fe+3 are used as CATALYSTS for this reaction.
The Fe+2 is readily oxidised to Fe+3 which is reduced to Fe+2 this acts as catalyst as it is replenished
and unused.
Ag+ acts as a catalyst, as there is no change in Ag+ unchanged.

Vanadium(V) oxide is used as catalyst to form Sulfuric Acid