SALTING DISADVANTAGES

- Originated from Latin word ❖ Too much sodium in the diet can
“Salsus ” meaning “Salted”. result to Hypertension.

- A crystalline compound NaCL that ❖ Salt will not prevent all microbial
consist of sodium chloride, is abundant in growth, some microbes can survive
nature, and is use specially to season or to in salty environment, and they
preserve food in the industry. called Halophiles (Halobacterium
salinarum, Haloferax mediterranei,
- Its preservation properties was
and Haloarcula Marismortui)
discovered by the Ancient Egyptians.
❖ Foods that has solution that is over
- 2 g of Sodium per day for adults
10% will have a detrimental effect
(PDRI 2015)
on flavor, texture, and structure of
the preserve food.

ACTION OF SALT ❖ Very Harsh

- Acts as preservatives by
inhibiting microbial growth.
TYPE OF SALT USED FOR FOOD
- Salt acts by drawing water out of PRESERVATION
the cells of the food and bacteria
1. SEA SALT - Obtained by evaporating
through a process known as
sea water, leaving behind the salt crystals.
osmosis.
It comes in different textures, such as
- At 10 % salt it inhibits microbial fine, coarse, and flaky.
growth and at high concentration
- Has many impurities (Cl and SO4
of salt can rupture bacterial cell
of Ca and Mg), which if present in excess
due to the difference between the
can cause bitterness
outside and inside pressure of the
microorganism. 2. KOSHER SALT - Is popular among home
cooks and professional chefs. It removes
- Salt is also effective in
impurities from coarse salt, producing a
protecting against molds and yeast-
cleaner and purer salt form.
it prevents the fermentation if
yeast and the growth of molds by 3. HIMALAYAN PINK SALT - Mined from
reducing water supply. ancient salt deposits in the Himalayan
mountains, this is known for its distinctive
pink color and high mineral content.
BENEFITS OF SALTING FOOD
4. CURING SALT - Curing salt, Prague
PRESERVATION
powder, or pink salt is formulated
✓ It extends the shelf-life of explicitly for curing and preserving meats.
perishable items. It contains a combination of salt and
sodium nitrite.
✓ One of the cheapest ways of
preserving food 5. MINED/ORE/ROCK SALT - Natural salt
deposits underground.
✓ It enhances the flavors of the
food.

✓ It can bring out the natural flavors TIPS FOR SALTING FOOD
of the food. EFFECTIVELY

✓ It enhances palatability (in some 1. Use the right amount of salt.

instances)
2. Distribute the salt evenly.

3. Consider the foods size and thickness.

4. Monitor the curing process.

5. Adjust the curing time based on the OTHER INFO:
type of food.
- Dietary Guidelines for Americans
(amount of Na needed in the body) – 2300
mg Na or less for adults
COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID
WHEN SALTING FOOD - Halophiles – salt-loving
microorganisms (ex. S. aureus)
1. Underestimating the curing time
- Low-sodium food – a combination
2. Over-salting
of NaCl and KCl (60:40), at this ratio; food
3. Not rinsing or soaking the food can claim low sodium on the label, this
mixture can reduce Na by 35%
4. Using iodized table salt
- Sodium vs Salt – element / NaCl
5. Not storing the preserve food properly
(40:60%)

TRADITIONAL SALT BASED

CURING (MEAT)
PRESERVATION TECHNIQUE AROUND
THE WORLD - comes from the Latin word ‘cure’
meaning ‘healing, remedy’.
1. SALT-CURED MEATS
- process involving the addition of
- In Italy, salt-cured meats such
salt and nitrates and/or nitrites to
as Prosciutto and Bresaola are highly
produce the so-called cured food products
regarded for their quality.
- purposes of preservation, flavor,
2. FERMENTED VEGETABLES
and color
- In many Asian countries,
vegetables such as cabbage, radishes, and
cucumbers are preserved through THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS FOR
fermentation with the help of salt. PRESERVATION

3. SALTED FISH - Salt/Sodium Chloride (NaCl),

Sugar/sweetener, and Nitrates/Nitrites
- Salting fish is standard
preservation in coastal region.

4. SALTED EGG Other ingredients for preservation

(optional):
- Duck eggs are soaked in a brine
solution. Resulting in a unique savory flavor - Phosphate, potassium sorbate,
and a creamy custard like texture. ascorbate, erythorbate, MSG

PURIFICATION PROCESS OF SALT SALT

a) Dissolving coarse (evaporated or boiled) - extracts water via osmosis

salt in river water;
- predominant flavoring agent
b) Debris and others that float are
- help solubilize the myofibrillar
skimmed off;
protein to improve gel formation
c) Brine is heated to evaporate the water,
- if too much, makes the meat dry,
recrystallizing the salt, resulting in finer
dark, and tough/firm
salt; and
- inhibit rancidity by acting as a
d) Packed and aged for at least a year,
preservative (lipid oxidation)
aging loses the moisture and selectively
melts off impurities - inhibits the growth of spoilage-
causing microorganisms
 - curing brines 35 degree to 85 2. Sodium nitrite reduced to
degree salometer nitrous acid in the presence of an acidic
environment (e.g., by fermentation,
Ascorbic acid)
SUGAR/SWEETENES
3. Nitrous acid forms nitric oxide.
- reduces the harshness of salt Nitric oxide reacts with myoglobin (meat
pigments) to form a red color.
- enhances sweetness

- browning reaction (Maillard

browning reactions and caramelization)

- honey, maple, syrup, molassess,

corn syrup, dextrose

- contributes to a burn or bitter

flavor

- provides roundness and

enrichment of flavor

- liquid dextrose– 70% more CHEMISTRY OF CURING

intense than sucrose, corn syrup – 42% as
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) – relatively weak
sweet as sugar
acid and a strong base

- Pale yellow crystalline substance

NITRATE/NITRITE that is readily water soluble

- enhances flavor and color of Nitrite ion (NO2-) – highly reactive and
cured meats can serve as both a reducing and oxidizing
agent
- contributes to a stable red color
in meats

- antioxidant effect Examples of microorganisms –

Staphylococcus xylosus / S. carnosus
- control rancid flavors in reheated
(these contains nitrate reductase that
meats, preventing warmed-over off-flavor
converts nitrate to nitrite
development (inhibits the oxidation of
lipids) Examples Acidic substances – Commonly
used is Sodium erythorbate (forms
- inhibits the germination
erythorbic acid), some used Ascorbic acid
of Clostridium botulinum

OTHER INGREDIENTS:
ANTIOXIDANT EFFECT
1. PHOSPHATES
Oxidation: reaction that produces free
radicals, thereby leading to chain • Provide some degree of buffering
reactions that may damage the cells of capacity, increasing yields,
organisms reducing cooking losses, retention
of juice, and improving sliceability
Antioxidants: compounds that inhibit
oxidation(thiols, ascorbic acid) terminate • raise the pH of meat protein which
these chain reactions increases water-holding capacity

• color protection

GENERATION OF NITRIC OXIDE (NO) • increases juiciness

1. Sodium nitrate reduced to • enhances flavor stability

sodium nitrite by microorganisms such
as Micrococcus spp.
2. POTASSIUM SORBATE 3. COMBINATION CURING – Both dry
curing and Brine curing
• GRAS food ingredient, inhibits
molds, yeasts, and certain bacteria
(C. botulinum)
HEALTH CONCERNS IN USING
3. ASCORBATE NITRATE/NITRITE

• accelerate the development of Large amount of nitrate/nitrite intake

color, flavor, texture, and increases cancer risk due to the formation
palatability of carcinogenic nitrosamine compounds.

• reduces color fading during storage Nitrites are implicated in carcinogenic

Nitrosamine formation; however, nitrites
• reduces residual nitrite
are NOT considered health hazards unless
4. ERYTHORBATE there’s an accidental overuse.

• cure accelerator Fatal oral dosage: Nitrate (80-800mg/kg),

• maintains brightness in color Lethal nitrate dose is 300 mg/kg of body

weight
5. MSG
Nitrite (33-250 mg/kg)
• enhances flavor
Possible effects of overdose:
6. STARCHES AND HYDROCOLLOIDS
➢ lower the ability of your red blood
• Texture enhancement, binding
cells to move oxygen (cyanosis,
properties, improve mouthfeel
cardiac dysrhythmias, circulatory
• Commonly used starch (corn, wheat,
failure, Metmyoglobinemia)
rice, potato, tapioca)
• Hydrocolloids - complex ➢ Reduce Vit. A in the liver
nondigestible polysaccharides that
➢ Interfere with thyroid function
dissolve or disperse in water to give
a thickening or viscosity-building Presences of Nitrates :
effect. Used in the industry (< 1%)
➢ Vegetables (86%) (ex. Spinach,
• Examples of hydrocolloids
lettuce, parsley)
(alginate, gums such as xanthan
gum, guar gum, locust bean gum, ➢ Saliva (77%) (oral microflora)
gum arabica, and others)
➢ Cured meats (21%)
• Most commonly used hydrocolloids
are Carrageenan and
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC).
SMOKING
Carrageenan can be kappa, iota, or
lambda - Surface microbial load is reduced
due to the bacteriostatic compounds from
7. HVP (HydrolyzedVegetable Protein) and
the smoke, such as resins, phenols,
TVP (Texturized Vegetable Protein)
aldehydes, and aromatic hydrocarbons 
– increases protein content and
- Smoke is a mixture of food
yield
combustion products that are visible as
gases that carry unburned solid particles
(resin, tar, ash, etc.).The exact
MEAT CURING METHODS
composition or ratio of gases and solids
1. DRY CURING - Applying cure mix within the smoke depends on (a) type and
directly on the meat (ex. Hams, bacon, moisture content of wood, (b) rate and
smaller cuts of meat) temp of heating/burning, (c) air flow

2. BRINE CURING - Also called “sweet

pickle cure”. Involves combining curing mix
with water.
PURPOSE OF SMOKING Due to shortened smoke time, products
must be refrigerated or fully cooked
- development of aroma and flavor

- Development of color
COMPOSITION OF SMOKING
- Preservation
- Phenols compounds
- Formation of a PROTECTIVE skin
- Carbonylic compounds
-Prevent of OXIDATION
- Polycystic Aromati Hydrocarbons
(PAH)
3 STAGES OF SMOKING
- Nitrogen Oxides
1. Initial drying at 52 degree C, where
dampers are open for moisture to escape
(8 hrs no smoke) Volatile compounds – generation is
dependent upon the temperature.
2. Another 8 hrs – partially closed
dampers, the temperature is at 57 degree Carbonyls and phenols – 200 to 600
C (smoke is initially generated) degree C (phenols decreased at >500oC)

3. All dampers are closed, temperature is Acid production – highest at 300 degree
82 degree C, maintained until internal C, decreases if more than 300 degree C
temperature of the food material is 61
degree C (partially cooked) or 64 degree C
(fully-cooked) PRESERVATIVE COMPONENTS

- A number of wood smoke

compounds acts as preservative.
TYPE OF SMOKING
- Phenol and other phenolic
COLD SMOKING - The food is flavoring
compound are booth antioxidants &
and coloring but not smoking. It used for
antimicrobials.
salmon, salamis, kippers, hams and special
cheeses. Temperature of 10 to 25 °C with - Smoke contains small amounts of
approximately 70-80% relative humidity compound that have long-term health
and the temp outside being +- 5 degree C consequences including PAHS and dioxin-
to reduce condensation formation like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

- Typically conducted with products

that will require minimal thermal
TASTELESS SMOKE - Tasteless Smoke
processing (i.e.cold-water fish,
was patented in 1999 as method of
dried/fermented sausage)
preserving fresh fish.

- The remaining gases ( nitrogen,

WARM SMOKING - 23-40 oC with carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide and
approximately 75-85% relative humidity methane, with the trace amounts of
from 4 to 8 hours phenolic compound and hydrocarbons) are
applied to tuna fish or other red meats
- Products smoked (fish products)
at this condition have higher Aw than cold-
smoked products, thus require
LIQUID SMOKE - A flavoring agent made
refrigeration
by burning wood chips, capturing the
smoke, and then condensing it in a liquid
substance.
HOT SMOKING - Exposes the food to
smoke or heat in a control environment. - Smoke flavouring or “liqud smoke”
40-60oC but can continue as high as 90- are prepared by condensing smoke derived
100oC depending on the product, with 60- from burning wood.
85% relative humidity for up to 4 hours
 - Usually followed by fractionation, ● Smoked foods may content carcinogenic
purification, or concentration. substances.

● Regular consumption of smoked food can

cause stomach ulcer.
PROCESSING

- Food are cured with salt before

warm- and cold – smoking, and sometimes TIPS:
before hot smoking.
1. The fish’s core temperature should be
maintained at 10°C or lower within 6hrs of
death and 4°C within 24hrs.
EQUIPMENT
2. Chilled fish should not be exposed to
➢ Controls flavor and color in foods
temperatures above 4°C for more than 4
with low levels of carcinogenic or toxic
hours cumulatively after initial chilling
components and environmental pollution.
➢ Smoke can be generated in the 3. Chilled fish should not be stored for
kiln or produced in a separate smoke more than 14 days at 0°C or 7 days at 4°C
generator. before smoking
➢ Separate smoke generators
4. Frozen fish stored for 24 weeks or
offer better control over temperature,
longer should not be exposed to
humidity, and density of smoke.
temperatures above 4°C for more than 12
➢ Kilns can be used for drying,
hours after initial chilling, and for more
cooking, and smoking.
than 6 hours of uninterrupted storage.

_______________________________
EFFECT ON FOODS (Organoleptic
FERMENTATION
Quality)
- Fermentation could be described
- Smoking alters the organoleptic
as a process in which microorganisms
properties of foods (flavor and color).
change the sensory (flavor, odor, etc.) and
- Chemicals in smoke contribute to functional properties of a food to produce
the flavor and aroma producing a shiny an end product that is desirable to the
yellow color that darkens as smoking time consumer.
increases.
- Process by which the living cells is
- Nitrogen oxides in smoke can also able to obtain energy through the
react with myoglobin to produce modified breakdown of glucose and other simple
colors in smoked meat products. sugar molecules without requiring oxygen.

- Process that gets energy from

carbohydrates
ADVANTAGES
- Breakdown of sugars by bacteria
● Kills bacteria and inhibit the growth of
and yeasts without the need for oxygen
other microbes.
- Beer – Lactobacillus lindneri
● Prevent oxidation.

● Extend shelf life of the product.

● Helps to improve aroma and flavor of the

product.

DISADVANTAGES

● Requires constant attention equipment

that can be costly.
CATABOLIC FATES OF PYRUVATE use in developing countries and rural
communities with limited facilities.

- In addition, the nondependence of

fermentation on the use of chemical
additives to the food appeals to the "more
aware" consumer market.

- The chemical composition of most

foods is relatively stable, therefore,
generally preservation is based on
eliminating microorganisms or controlling
their growth and the overall composition
of the microflora.

- To reduce or prevent microbial

spoilage of food, four basic principles can
be applied:

1. Minimize the level of microbial

contamination onto the food, particularly
from "high-risk" sources (asepsis).

2. Inhibit the growth of the contaminating

microflora.

3. Kill the contaminating microorganisms.

4. Remove the contaminating

HISTORY microorganisms.

- Fermentation, along with salting,

cooking, smoking, and sun drying, is one of STEPS OF FERMENTATION
the earliest ancient traditions developed
by cultures all around the world to extend 1. Glycolysis, which means “splitting of
the possible storage time of foods. sugar”.

- Before the initiation of ➢ The first step, glycolysis, is also

preservation technology, humans the first step in cellular respiration. In
frequently had to choose between glycolysis, glucose, a 6-carbon sugar
starvation and eating spoiled foods and molecule, is broken down into two
then suffer the possible consequences of pyruvates (a 3-carbon compound). It
this. involves two stages:

- For thousands of years, raw a) The first stage of glycolysis is

animal and plant ingredients have been known as the energy-investment phase,
fermented. Fermented fruits were where ATP molecules are used to power
probably among the first fermented foods the process
eaten. The methods for fermentations b) The second stage is called the
were developed by trial and error and from energy-payoff phase, as ATP is generated
the experiences of many generations.
through substrate-level phosphorylation.

2. Transfer of electrons from NADH to

FERMENTATION AS A PRESERVATION pyruvate or its derivatives
METHOD: ➢ It is The final step of
- Fermentation can be effective at fermentation that is also known as the
extending the shelf life of foods and can energy-payoff phase is pyruvate.
often be carried out with relatively a) Pyruvate is then utilized in the
inexpensive, basic equipment. Therefore, next step of fermentation, which is the
it remains a very appropriate method for
transfer of electrons from NADH to
pyruvate or its derivatives.
ADVANTAGES OF FERMENTATION
b) This step re-generates NAD+,
1. Use of mild condition of pH and temp
which is crucial because it is necessary for
which maintain the nutritional properties
the energy-payoff phase of glycolysis as
and sensory characteristics of the food.
mentioned earlier.
2. The production of food that have
flavors or textures cannot be achieved by
MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION OF others method.
FOODS
3. Low energy consumption due to mild
- The resultant contaminating operating condition.
microflora can have different effects on
4. Relatively low capital and operating cost.
the food. These include negative effects
such as spoilage, where the food becomes 5. Relatively simple technologies.
unfit for human consumption or health
risks when infectious or toxigenic
microorganisms are present. TYPES OF FERMENTATION
- Negligible effects on the food 1. ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION - is a
occur when the microflora does not cause process that converts sugars such as
disease or any detectable changes in the glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
food. However, benefits can also be
1.1 It starts with the splitting of glucose
reaped from the action of the
through glycolysis, which produces two
microorganisms when their activity brings
molecules of pyruvate and two molecules
about improvements in the appeal of the
of ATP.
food.
1.2. The pyruvate is then further broken
- A major consideration needs to be
down into acetaldehyde, carbon dioxide,
that under ideal conditions
and ethanol.
microorganisms can grow very rapidly,
being able to double in number in a short 1.3. This process also requires the
period of time. electrons from NADH and results in the
generation of NAD+.

BENEFITS OF FERMENTATION
FOODS 2. LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION -
Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic
- Microorganisms perse can be used
process that converts sugars into lactic
as food sources, but in many instances, it
acid using enzymes.
is their effects on other food sources
that are of major interest. The 2.1. It is carried out by certain bacteria,
acceptability of a food to the consumer is such as the bacteria in yogurt, and also by
based mainly on its sensory properties. muscle cells during intense physical
activity.
- The sought after sensory
properties of fermented foods are 2.2. The process starts with glycolysis,
brought about by the biochemical activity which produces two molecules of pyruvate
of microorganisms. Fermented foods were and two molecules of ATP.
developed simultaneously by many cultures
for two main reasons: 2.3. The pyruvate is then reduced using
the electrons carried by NADH to produce
1. To preserve harvested or slaughtered lactic acid.
products, which were abundant at certain
times and scarce at others 2.4. Unlike alcoholic fermentation, there is
no carbon dioxide production in this
2. To improve the sensory properties of an process.
abundant or unappealing produce.
MICROORGANISMS USED IN FOOD beverages. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is
FERMENTATIONS: the most frequently used and many
variants are available.
1. LACTIC ACID BACTERIA - Lactic acid
bacteria perform an essential role in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments
preservation and production of wholesome glucose but does not ferment lactose or
foods. The lactic acid fermentations are starch directly. Yeasts are used to
generally inexpensive, and often little or produce ethanol, flavor, and aroma. The
no heat is required in their preparation, reaction can be represented by the
making them fuel efficient as well. following equation:

Ex: fermented vegetables such as

sauerkraut, pickled cucumbers, radishes,
carrots, and olives.

2. ACETIC ACID BACTERIA - A second

group of bacteria with importance in food
fermentations are the acetic acid
4. MOLDS - Molds are used in the food
producers. Acetic acid is one of the oldest
industry to produce specific enzymes such
chemicals known; it is named after the
as amylases for use in bread making. They
Latin word for vinegar "acetum."
are relatively tolerant to extreme
The acetic acid bacteria are acid tolerant, environments and are able to colonize and
grow well at pH levels below pH 5.0, are grow on most foods.
Gram-negative, motile rods, and are
Molds are important to the food industry,
obligate aerobes. They derive energy from
both as spoilers and preservers of foods
the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid
and in fermentations for flavor
following the reaction shown below.
development. Certain molds produce
C₂H₂OH + O₂CH₂COOH + H₂O antibiotics while mycotoxin production by
others is an emerging cause of concern in
The acetic acid bacteria consist of two
the food industry.
genera Acetobacter and Gluconobacter.
The Aspergillus species are often
Acetobacter - can eventually oxidize
responsible for undesirable changes in
acetic acid to carbon dioxide and water
foods, although some species such as A.
using Krebs cycle enzymes referred to as
oryzae are used in fermentations of
overoxidation.
soybeans to make miso and soy sauce.
Gluconobacter - The most desirable action Mucor and Rhizopus are also used in some
of acetic acid bacteria is in the production traditional food fermentations.
of vinegar. The same reaction can also
occur in wines, when oxygen is available,
and here the oxidation of alcohol to acetic FACTORS THAT CAN CONTROL THE
acid is an undesirable change, giving the GROWTH AND ACTIVITY OF
wine a vinegary off-taste. MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD
FERMENTATION
Ex: Alcoholic beverages
• Availability of carbon and
nitrogen sources and any
3. YEASTS - Yeasts are widely distributed specific nutrients required
in natural habitats that are nutritionally by individual organisms.
rich and high in carbohydrates, such as
• Substrates pH
fruits and plant nectars. Yeasts are rarely
toxic or pathogenic and are generally • Moisture content
acceptable to consumers.
• Incubation temperature
- After extensive study, yeasts
• Redox potential stage of
have been classified into about 500
growth of microorganism.
species. However, only a small number are
regularly used to make alcoholic
 • presence of others exists and they include ales, lagers, and
competing microorganisms. stouts.

2. ALE - produced using Saccharomyces

cerevisiae
STARTER CULTURES - Starter cultures
are an essential component of nearly all 3. LAGERS - are produced using pure
commercially produced fermented foods. cultures of Saccharomyces carlsbergensi
Simply defined, starter cultures consist of
4. WINE - Wine can be produced from any
microorganisms that are inoculated
fruit juice with sufficient levels of
directly into food materials in order to
fermentable sugars, in most cases wine is
bring about desired and predictable
a beverage obtained by full or partial
changes in the finished product. These
alcoholic fermentation of fresh, crushed
changes may include enhanced
grapes or grape juice (must), with an aging
preservation, improved nutritional value,
process.
modified sensory qualities, and increased
economic value. 5. DISTILLED SPIRITS - Concentrations
in excess of this inhibit the metabolism of
Starter cultures may be pure or mixed
the yeasts. To obtain higher alcohol
cultures.
concentrations, the fermented product
Using mixed starter cultures can reduce must be subsequently distilled.
the risks of bacteriophage infection and
improve the quality of the foods when the
organisms are mutually beneficial. LACTIC ACID PRODUCTS

→ DAIRY PRODUCTS

CLASSIFICATION OF FERMENTED 1. YOGURT - Yogurt is a coagulated milk

PRODUCTS: product obtained by lactic acid
fermentation through the action of
(1) beverages
Streptococcus thermophilus and Lb.
(2) cereal products delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus.

(3) dairy products 2. CHEESE - Cheese is a concentrated milk

product obtained after coagulation and
(4) fish products
whey separation of milk, cream or partially
(5) fruit and vegetable products skimmed milk, buttermilk, or a mixture of
these products.
(6) legumes
3. FERMENTED VEGETABLES - A large
(7) meat products
number of vegetables are preserved by
lactic acid fermentation around the world.
The most important commercially
Steinkraus (1997) classified
fermented vegetables in the west are
fermentations according to the type of
cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, and
fermentation:
olives.
• alcoholic wines and beers
- Aerobic conditions should be
• alkaline Nigerian dawadawa maintained during fermentation to allow
naturally occurring microorganisms to
grow and produce enough lactic acid, and
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES: to prevent growth of spoilage
microorganisms.
1. BEER - Beer is produced by the
fermentation of partially germinated - The primary reason for developing
cereal grains, referred to as malt, by methods to ferment meats and fish was to
yeasts. Beers have a final ethanol content extend the shelf life of these highly
of about 3%–8%; a huge variety of beers prized, perishable foods. Several products
became popular, including fermented
sausages, fish sauces, and fish pastes.
 common cause of spoilage of alcoholic
beverages.
4. FERMENTED ANIMAL PRODUCTS –
Ex: Fermented sausages and fermented
fish
Three main methodologies are used:
_______________________________
a) Traditional Surface Methods
The release of carbon dioxide by
The static surface method is the
microorganisms has two major roles in
oldest production method and relies on a
food fermentations:
layer of acetic acid bacteria forming a
I. it can act as a leavening agent and bacterial “mat” on the surface of the
vinegar stock.
II. it can be used for carbonation of
beverages. b) The Trickling Methods

Examples: The trickling methods are a

further development of the surface
1. Bread - Breads have relatively short
technique. These processes have enhanced
shelf lives; therefore, the primary reason
rates of vinegar production.
for their production was not preservation,
but to improve the digestibility and eating c)Submerged Fermentation
appeal of grains.
In the 1950s, submerged culture
- To make leavened bread, flour technology began and subsequently
produced from grains, such as wheat, that developed to produce the most rapid rates
contain gluten proteins are used. When the of vinegar production. Using these
bread is kneaded, the gluten forms a systems, the time to convert alcoholic
matrix that makes the dough elastic and vinegar stock into vinegaris reduced to
extensible. around 24–48 h.

2. Sourdough - The fermentation 4. Kefir - Kefir is produced by an

combines the metabolic activity of LAB acid/alcohol fermentation of pasteurized
for souring and yeasts for leavening. The milk with a mixture of LAB, yeasts, and
sourness of the product depends on many other bacteria. The final product is acidic,
factors, including fermentation slightly alcoholic, liquid to semiliquid, and
temperature and time, type of grain, and effervescent, and is consumed as a
the strains of yeast and LAB. beverage.

_______________________________

3. Vinegar - Vinegar is one of the oldest MICROBIAL FOOD PRESERVATIVES

known culinary products. It is thought that
As a whole, microorganisms naturally
it was discovered by accident from spoilt
produce an arsenal of antimicrobial agents
wine, in fact it is named after the French
to improve their competitiveness. The
term “vin aigre” meaning sour wine. Vinegar
major concern when substances are added
is classified as a condiment that contains
to foods as preservatives is any potential
a minimum of 4% w/v (40 g/L) acetic acid
risks to the consumer.
and has a pH value between 2.0 and 3.5.
Consequently, the use of antibiotics as
Vinegars are produced from a two-stage
food preservatives has not been pursued
fermentation:
due to the health risks posed by bacteria
a.) initially an anaerobic, alcoholic acquiring resistance to antibiotics that are
fermentation of sugars by yeasts, used clinically for controlling infections in
followed by oxidation of the ethanol to humans.
acetic acid by bacteria;

b.) this second reaction is known as

acetification. Acetification is also a
_______________________________ • Insufficient heat treatment
(pH 3.5 at 100C for 10
PICKLING
minutes)
- Pickling is the process of
• Failure to thoroughly wash
preserving or extending the shelf life of
products to be pickled
food by either anaerobic fermentation in
brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling • Using deteriorated
procedure typically affects the food’s ingredients
texture and flavor. The resulting food is
• Storing the pickles at a too
called a pickle.
warm temperature
- Pickling is one of the oldest known
methods of food preservation. It is the
best process of using acidic brine, acidic PICKLING PROBLEMS
brine can be made from salty vinegar, salty
1. Hollow pickles - due to too much time
water, sugar water, or lemon juice but
between gathering and pickling and also
sometimes alcohol is also used such as
from improper curing.
vodka.
2. Shriveling - too-strong brine, too heavy
- The brine would then be poured
syrup, or too strong vinegar.
over vegetables, fruit, meat or fish which
are then placed in a tight jar for a few 3. Spotted, dull or faded color - excessive
days. This process changes the taste of exposure to sunlight, use of poor quality
the vegetables, making them more sour
4. White sediments - anticaking agents in
since the acid is what preserves the food.
salt or the fermenting bacteria

5. Blue purple or blue green garlic –

HISTORY OF PICKLING immature garlic
- The story of Pickles dates back
thousands of years, the first mention of
TWO MAIN TYPES OF PICKLING
pickles were pickled vegetables that
appeared in an ancient Chinese manuscript 1. VINEGAR PICKLING - involves
that's more than 9,000 years old. immersing the food in vinegar, water, and
Throughout the years pickling was used to salt, often with additional flavorings like
preserve and to add more flavor. sugar, garlic, dill, or mustard seeds. The
vinegar's acidity creates an environment
- Every country has their own type
where harmful bacteria can't survive,
of pickling techniques but all of them have
preserving the food.
something in common and that is using an
acidic base to pickle the food. Pickles were 2. BRINE (LACTO-FERMENTATION)
served as the side dish or the appetizer. PICKLING - involves submerging the food
in a saltwater solution and allowing it to
ferment. The salt encourages the growth
SPOILAGE OF PICKLED PRODUCTS of beneficial bacteria, which produce
lactic acid. This acid, in turn, preserves
Pickled products would spoil due to these
the food.
factors:

• The Jar has a poor seal or

not airtight. HEALTH BENEFITS
• The brine is too weak. • improve digestive health,
• The pickled products are • help prevent constipation.
not fully covered in brine.
• Helps promote stomach
• Pickles are not stored in. health.
• Blossom ends not removed. • support weight loss.
PROBIOTICS ADVANTAGES

Fermented products are considered o Saves Money

functional foods as they are considered
o Storage and preservation is easy
probiotics.
o Longer Lasting
➢Encourage gastrointestinal tract health
by promoting the growth of friendly o Reduces Waste o Prepares you for any
bacteria, thereby inhibiting pathogenic emergencies
bacteria

➢Reduce inflammation
DISADVANTAGES
➢Improve immunity
o Energy intensive (cost of
➢Better nutrient absorption supplying this energy is relatively high)

➢Reduce risks of cardiovascular diseases o Cause detrimental changes to the

➢Reduce weight gain quality of the food

_______________________________ A. Solid food pieces – shrinkage can

alter the size and shape
DRYING/DEHYDRATION
B. Changes in color – when the food
- The oldest method of
pieces are rehydrated, their color and
preservation practiced by humans
texture may be significantly inferior to
- It described the removal of most those of the fresh material
of the water normally present in the
C. Changes in flavor– losing the
foodstuff by evaporation or sublimation as
volatile flavor compounds and /or
a result of the application of heat
development of cooked flavors
- Goal is to reduce the Moisture
D. Reduction of the nutritional
content or Available water to a level that
value of foods – ex. Loss of Vit C and A
inhibits the growth and development of (1)
spoilage and pathogenic microorganism, (2) E. Excess Calories
reduce the activity of enzymes, and (3)
the rate at which undesirable chemical
changes occur. METHODS OF DRYING/DEHYDRATION
OPERATION:
- Appropriate packaging is
necessary to maintain the low Aw during BATCH DRYING
storage and distribution
o a semi-batch process wherein a quantity
- Reduces the weight/volume of the of the substance to be dried is exposed to
food product – leading to substantial a continuously flowing stream of air into
savings in transport and storage cost, and which the moisture evaporates o batch or
packaging cost semi-batch equipment is operated
intermittently or cyclically under steady
state conditions of the dryer is charged
WHAT IS DRYING/DEHYDRATION? with the substance, which remains in the
equipment until dry, whereupon the dryer
o Is the removal of relatively small
is emptied and recharged with a fresh
amounts of solvent, at temperatures below
batch
its boiling point, by circulating air or some
other gas over the material in order to
carry away the solvent vapor.
CONTINUOUS DRYING
o This is an adiabatic (constant
enthalpy) drying process in which heat - the substance to be dried as well
required for the vaporization of solvent as the gas passes continually through the
comes solely from the sensible heat of the equipment
frying medium
 - no typically stagewise methods
are ordinarily used, and all operations
PHYSICAL STABILITY
involve continuous contact of the gas and
the drying substance Some examples of physical effects are:
1. Texture - The loss of texture in these
- continuous dryers are usually
products is caused by gelatinization of
operated in steady state fashion
starch, crystallization of cellulose, and
______________________________ localized variations in the moisture
content during drying, which set up
DETERIORATION REACTION IN FOOD
internal stresses.
MICROBIAL STABILITY
2. Differential shrinkage - Outer layers
- The limits for microbial growth shrink relative to inner layers, leading to
are determined by water activity. either surface cracks or radial cracks.

- The exact water activity limit for 3. Case hardening - A hydrophobic layer
a specific organism depends on other may be formed in an oil-rich product
factors such as pH, oxygen availability, the during rapid drying of outer layers, which
nature of the solutes present, nutrient traps moisture inside the product.
availability, and temperature.
4. Cell collapse - Cells may collapse if
internal moisture is removed, leading to
the product wrinkling (e.g., prunes, sulta•
CHEMICAL STABILITY
5. Flavor and aroma - Heat not only
Reactions that depend on moisture to
vaporizes water during drying but also
bring reactants together will become
causes loss of volatile components from
increasingly limited by drying, due to the
the food and as a result most dried foods
reduced molecular mobility of the
have less flavor than the original
reactants.
materials)
Some examples of important food
6. Color - drying changes the surface
chemical reactions are:
characteristics of food and hence alters
1. Enzymatic reactions - These reactions its reflectivity and color. In fruits and
are very slow at low aw values due to the vegetables, chemical changes to
lack of mobility of the substrate to carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments are
diffuse to the active site of the enzyme. caused by heat and oxidation during drying
and residual polyphenoloxidase enzyme
2. Non-enzymatic browning (NEB) -
activity causes browning during storage.
Water-dependent reaction with maximum
reaction rates around aw = 0.6–0.7. Water
is also a reaction product. Too much water
THE DRYING OF FOOD CAN BE
inhibits reaction by dilution, and too little
INFLUENCED BY VARIOUS FACTORS
gives inadequate mobility.
pt. 1
3. Lipid oxidation - Reaction that is fast at
From maam Jen:
both low and high values of aw.
A. PROCESS CONDITIONS (Influence
4. Loss of Nutritive Value - Large
the rate of drying, necessary to be able to
differences in reported data on the
estimate how fast a food product will dry)
nutritional value of dried foods are due to
wide variations in the preparation i. Temperature – increases drying rate,
procedures, the drying temperature and increases drying force
time, and the storage conditions. In fruits
ii. Air Velocity – increases drying rate,
and vegetables, losses during preparation
increases convection (the speed at which
usually exceed those caused by the drying
drying air blows across the product
operation.
surface which impacts the rate of
5. Loss of volatiles moisture migration from the surface to
the drying air)
6. Release of structural water
iii. RH – decreases drying rate, decreases the drying process and the quality of the
drying force (amount of MC in the air, as dried food
measured by the vapor pressure or RH,
8. AIRFLOW - Sufficient airflow is
affects the driving force for external
necessary to carry away the moisture
mass transfer)
evaporated from the food during drying
iv. Pressure – decreases drying rate,
IMPORTANCE OF DEHYDRATED FOOD
decreases drying force
- Food preservation

- Enhanced food safety

B. FOOD PROPERTIES (nature of the food
product) - Storage and transportation

i. Surface Area – the distance that water - Extended availability of seasonal

molecules must travel within a food, produce
determines how fast the food will dry
- Convenience and portability
ii. Constituent Orientation – ex. Fibrous
structure – along the fiber rapid drying
than across TYPES OF DEHYDRATION

iii. Cellular Structure – water between 1. Drying Solid Foods in Heated Air
cellular structures is easier to remove
• Most widely used method
than water contained within the cells
• Heat is transferred by convection
iv. Type and Concentration of Solutes
from the air to the surface of the
food and conduction within the
food
THE DRYING OF FOOD CAN BE
INFLUENCED BY VARIOUS FACTORS • The temperature, humidity and
pt. 2 velocity of the air are maintained
constant.
1. TEMPERATURE - Higher temperatures
can speed up the drying process • It is assumed that all the heat is
transferred to the solid from the
2. HUMIDITY - The humidity level in the
air by convection and that drying
drying environment affects the rate at
takes place from one large face
which moisture is removed from the food
only
3. FOOD THICKNESS AND SIZE - The
thickness and size of the food pieces being
dried influence the drying time.

4. FOOD COMPOSITIONS - Foods with EQUIPMENT USED

high sugar or fat content, tend to dry
• CABINET TRAY DRYER
more slowly compared to foods with lower
sugar or fat content.

5. ALTITUDE AND ATMOSPHERIC

CONDITIONS - The altitude at which
drying takes place can affect the boiling
point of water, which, in turn, influences
the drying process.

6. DRYING EQUIPMENT - The type and

efficiency of the drying equipment used • TUNNEL DRYER
can significantly impact the drying process
and the quality of the dried food

7. DURATION OF THE DRYING - The

type and efficiency of the drying
equipment used can significantly impact
 • Cabinet (Batch) Freeze Dryer

• CONVEYOR BELT DRYER

• BIN DRYER

• FLUIDISED BED DRYER

• PNEUMATIC FLASH DRYER

• ROTARY DRYER

Tunnel (SemiContinuous) Freeze Dryer

2. Drying of Solid Foods by Direct • Continuous Freeze Dryers

Contact with a Heated Surface
• Vacuum Spray Freeze Dryer
• Heat is tranferred by conduction
to the surface of the food in
contact with the heated surface 4. Drying by Application of Radiant
and within the food.
(Infrared) Heat
• Most of the evaporation takes
• Thermal radiation, energy is
place from the surface, which is not
absorbed and then converting into
in contact with the hot surface.
heat. The absorption is very
shallow, thus materials dries using
this method must be thin.
EQUIPMENT USED
• Very difficult to achieve uniform
• Vacuum Cabinet (Tray or Shelf )
heating especially complex foods
Dryer
(protein, carbs, fats, and others
have their own absorption pattern)

QUALITIES CHANGES IN FOOD

DURING DRYING

1. COLOR LOSS

2. SHRINKAGE/ TEXTURE
Double Cone Vacuum Dryer
CHANGES
3. Freeze Drying (Sublimation Drying,
3. SOLUBILITY
Lyophilisation) of Solid Foods
4. AROMA AND FLAVOR
• Freezing the food and removal of
ice by sublimation 5. VITAMIN LOSS

• Applying heat by conduction or

radiation in a very low-pressure
5. Drying by the application of Dielectric
environment
energy
• 95% of water of the food should be
- used to represent both the radio
converted to ice to attain
frequency (RF) and microwave (MV) bands
successful freeze drying
of electromagnetic spectrum.
• This method of drying foods was
- used for cooking, thawing, melting
first used in industry in the 1950s
and drying.
EQUIPMENTS USED
Volumetric heating - heat generation is
rapid and occurs throughout the body of
the food material.
RF heating - heat is generated by the Different designs of spray drying
passage of an electric current through the
a. Concurrent with straight-line flow
water.
path
>MF heating - dipolar molecules in the
water are stressed by the alternating
magnetic field and this is the results in the
generation heat.

6. Osmotic Dehydration

> used to remove moisture from food

b. Concurrent with spiral flow path

7. Solar and Sun Drying

Sun drying

>supplied by the direct radiation from the

sun.

Solar drying
c. Mixed flow
>solar collectors are used to heat air,
which then supplies heat to the food by
convection.

ex: Simple Sun Drier

9. Drying liquids and slurries by direct

contact with a heated surface

→ Drum (Roller, film) drier

8. Drying food liquids and slurries in - Drying times are relatively short
heated air
- Made from variety of materials
→ Spray drying
- For food applications, chromium-
- most commonly used to dry liquid plated cast iron or stainless steel drums
foods and slurries. are mostly used.

- the feed is converted into a fine Single drum with dip feed
mist or spray. This is known as atomisation
and the spray forming device as an
atomiser.

Double drum
 - This bound water is regarded as
being unavailable as a solvent and hence
Drum Drier
does not contribute to microbial, enzymic
or chemical activity

- Aw 0-0.35 (monomolecular or
monolayer value)

- unfreezable at −40°C

Zone B

- Multilayer region, less tightly

→ Vacuum Band (Belt) Drier
held, water population is weakly bound to
- continuous, made of stainless food molecules
steel or fine stainless steel wire mesh.
- also unfreezable but more mobile
than in region A

Zone C

- Aw 0.75 – 0.85, Loose, free,

mobile water

- water becomes available to take

part in biological processes

______________________________

APPLICATIONS OF DEHYDRATION
MOISTURE SORPTION ISOTHERM

- A plot of moisture content as a

TYPICAL PROCESS INVOLVED IN
function of Aw at a fixed
DEHYDRATION
temperature
(VEGETABLES)
Adsorption – placing a dry material
in contact with atmospheres of • Wet and dry cleaning
increasing RH
• Peeling, if necessary by mechanical,
Desorption – placing a wet material steam or chemical methods
in contact with atmospheres with
• Slicing, dicing, shredding
decreasing RH
• Blanching

• Sulphiting

• Dewatering

• Drying

• Conditioning

• Screening

• Packaging

Zone A
(FRUITS)
- Water molecules are strongly
bound to specific sites on the solid food • washing
material
• Grading
• Peeling/coring, if required fruits . Air in-let temperatures in the
range 50–75 degree C
• Trimming if required

• Sulphiting
2. DEHYDRATED DAIRY PRODUCTS
• Cutting
- Milk is extremely perishable, yet
• Resulphiting
for a number of reasons it is desirable to
• Drying preserve it for later consumption

• Conditioning if required - Skim or separated milk is mainly

produced by spray drying. The skim milk is
• Packaging
then heat treated.

- Low-heat powder is used in

1. DEHYDRATED FRUITS AND recombined milk products such as cheese
VEGETABLES and baby foods.

- Dehydration of fruit and - Medium-heat powder is used in

vegetables is one of the oldest forms of the production of recombined
food preservation techniques known to concentrated milk products.
man and consists primarily of
- High-heat powder is mainly used
establishments engaged in sun drying or
in the bakery and chocolate industries
artificially dehydrating fruits and
vegetables. - The milk is then concentrated to
a total solids content in the range 40–55%,
- Some fruits and vegetables
by multiple-effect evaporation
suitable for drying include apples, pears,
peaches, plums, apricots, bananas, - Milk is sprayed or atomised, into
strawberries, blueberries, carrots, celery, the hot air which removes water from the
corn, green beans, potatoes, and tomatoes. droplets, forming a powder which falls to
Fruits can also be dried as fruit leathers the bottom chamber for collection. Due to
and rolls. the cooling effect of associated with the
evaporation of water, powder temperature
- Increasing the temperature of
generally remains
food makes its moisture evaporate, and air
moving over the food carries the moisture - Other dairy products which are
away. A balance of temperature and spray dried are buttermilk and whey.
humidity is needed to successfully dry Whey powder is hygroscopic and difficult
foods. to handle, as the lactose is in an amorphous
state. A crystallization process before
- Most vegetables are blanched
and/or after drying can alleviate this
prior to drying
problem
- Fruits are not usually blanched.
- Relatively small amounts of milk
- Many vegetables are sulphured or and whey are drum dried. Double drum
sulphited prior to drying driers are usually used. The dry products
are mainly used for animal feed. However,
- A procedure known as dry-blanch-
because of its good water binding
dry is sometimes used for some fruits
properties, drum dried milk is used in some
such as apricots, peaches and pears
precooked foods.
- If the drying is not completed in
the main drier, the product may be finish
dried or conditioned in a bin drier, supplied 4. INSTANT COFFEE AND TEA
with dry air at 40-60 degree C.
- These products are produced by
- Cabinet or tunnel driers are most spray drying or freeze drying. The extract
commonly used at the drying stage of from ground roasted bean is
preconcentrated by vacuum evaporation
before drying.
 - Air inlet and out let temperatures
in the ranges 250–300 °C and 105 – 115 °C
respectively are used. Instant tea may also
be produced by spray drying the extract
from the leaves. Similar equipment to that
used for instant coffee is employed but at
lower air inlet temperatures(200–250°C)

5. DEHYDRATED MEAT PRODUCTS

- Cooked minced meat may be hot

air dried in cabinet, conveyor, fluidized
bed and rotary driers, down to a moisture
content of 4–6%. Cooked minced meat may
also be dried in vacuum cabinet drier to
give better quality products, than hot air-
dried meat, but at a higher cost.

6. DEHYDRATED FISH PRODUCTS

- The traditional methods of

extending the shelf life of fish are salting
and smoking. Salting could be regarded as
a form of osmotic drying whereby salt is
introduced into the flesh of fish to reduce
its water activity.

- A moisture loss of 10–11% may

occur during smoking. Cold smoked fish
product can be chilled, which gives the 
Shelf life of about 7 days. Hot smoking is
carried out at temperatures up to 120 °C

7. STABILITIY OF DEHYDRATED
FOODS

- When considering the stability of

dehydrated foods is not the total moisture
content that is critical but rather the
amount of moisture that is available to
support microbial growth, enzymic and
chemical activity.

- It is generally accepted that a

proportion of the total moisture present in
a food is strongly bound to individual sites.