\

Natural Science

Natural
Science
Prepared by:
Dr. L eticia V. Cacris

Competencies:

1. use scientific knowledge to explain natural

phenomena and protect manfe environment
2. use scientific inquiry to investigate materials,
events and phenomena in the natural
world (designing experiments, collecting,
organizing, analyzing and interpreting data,
making conclusions, and communicating
results)
3. identify scientific traits and attitudes
exhibited in various situations
4. analyze the impact of technology on non­
living and living things
5. analyze advantages and disadvantages of
different solutions to particular problems

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PART I - CONTENT UPDATE

INTRODUCTION

Scientific knowledge and skills are essential for socio-economic and cultural
development. While the required knowledge may or may not be generated wholly,
we must have the capacity to make use of it.

Today, the amount of scientific and technological knowledge has transformed

societies. With the advent of information and communication technology, information
can be relayed to other parts of the world in just a matter of seconds. The inventions
in telecommunications and transportations have drawn the world smaller and
smaller. Moreover, technology has enabled humans to do things which were thought
to be impossible before like exploring the universe, stem cloning, in-vitro fertilization,
etc... The recent breakthroughs in genetic mapping have made it possible to identify
the useful and bad genes that will result to the breeding of a better species. Life
has been increasingly influenced by science and technology in our pursuit of a more
comfortable lifestyle. BUT the transformations have not been entirely beneficial.

To better understand the innumerable transformations in science and its applications

would require at one extreme, scientists and technologist of high caliber andatthe other, a
scientifically and technologically literate population. Science can be a vehicle to inculcate
values on the proper use of technology that bring both advantages and disadvantages.

The scientifically literate person understands and appreciates the joint enterprises
of science and technology, their interrelationships, and their impacts .on society
and the environment. Some of the factors involved in the interrelationships among
science, technology, society,-and the environment are:

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A. Science and-Technology
There is a distinction between science and technology, although they often
overlap and depend on each other. Scienge deate with generating and ordering
conceptual knowledge. Technology deals with design and development, and the
application of scientific or technological knowledge, often in response to social
and human needs. Technology does not just provide tools for science, however; it
also may provide motivation and direction for theory and research. For example,
the theory of the conservation of energy was developed technological problem
of increasing the efficiency of commercial steam engines. The mapping of the
locations of the entire set of genes in human DNA has been motivated by the
technology of genetic engineering, which both makes such mapping possible
and provides a reason for doing so. The invention of the microscope led to new
discoveries about cells.

B. Scientists and Technologists are human

Scientists see patterns in phenomena as making the world understandable;
technologists see them as making the world manipulate. Scientists seek to
show that theories fit the data; technologists (engineers) seek to demonstrate
that designs work. Scientists cannot provide answers to all questions;
engineers cannot design solutions for all problems. Outside of their specialized
fields, scientists and technologists may not exhibit strong development of all
or even most of the dimensions of scientific literacy. Vocations in science and
technology are open to most, people.
Example: By researching the biographies of famous scientists, students
can begin to appreciate the human elements of science and technology.

C. Impact of Science and Technology

Scientific and technological developments, have real and direct effects on every
person’s life. Some effects are desirable; others are not. Some of the desirable
effects may have undesirable side effects. In essence, there seems to be a
trade-off principle working in which gains are accompanied by losses.

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Example: -4s our society continues to increase its demands on energy

consumption and consumer goods, we are likely to attain a higher standard
of living while allowing further deterioration of the environment to occur
The different areas of technology represent areas o f technological activity
in wider world.- •

D. Science, Technology, and the Environment

Science and technology can be used to monitor environmental quality. Society
has the ability and responsibility to educate and to regulate environmental
quality and the wise usage of natural resources, to ensure quality of life for this
and the succeeding generations.
Example: Everyone should share in the responsibility of conserving energy.

E. Public Understanding Gap

A considerable gap exists between scientific and technological knowledge,
and public understanding of it. Constant effort is required by scientists,
technologists, and educators to minimize this gap.
Examples: Some people mistakenly believe that irradiation causes food to
become radioactive. Buttermilk is often mistakenly regarded as having a
high caloric content. Folklore has it that the best time to plant potatoes
is during the full moon. Many believe that technology is simply applied
science.

F. Variable Positions
Scientific thought and knowledge can be used to support different positions. It
is normal for scientists and technologists to disagree among themselves, even
though they may invoke the same scientific theories and data.
Examples: The debate about the possibility o f cold fusion illustrated variable
positions among scientists.
There is a debate about whether or not controlled burning techniques
should be used in national parks.

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G. • Limitations of Science and Technology

Science and technology "cannot •guarantee a solution to any specific problem.
In fact, the ultimate solution of any problem is usually impossible, and 3 partial
or temporary solution is all that is ever possible. Solutions to problems can not
necessarily be legislated, bought, or guaranteed by the allocation of resources.
Some things are not amenable to the approaches of science and technology. •
Example: The solutions that technology now proposes for nuclear waste
storage often have significant limitations and are, at best, only short-term
solutions until better ones can be found.

H. Social Influence on Science and Technology

The selection of problems investigated by scientific and technological research
is influenced by the needs, interests, and financial support of society.
Example: The race to put a person on the moon illustrates how priorities
can determine the extent to which the study of particular scientific and
technological problems are sanctioned and thus allowed to be investigated.

I. Technology Controlled by Society

Although science requires freedom to inquire, applications of scientific
knowledge and of technological products and practices are ultimately
determined by society. Scientists and technologists have a responsibility to
inform the public of the possible consequences of such applications. A need to
search for consequences of scientific and technological innovations exists.
Examples: Einstein's famous letter to President Roosevelt, warning about
the possibility of developing nuclear weapons, and his pacifist views,
illustrate the responsibility that scientists must have as members, of society.
■Governments must make decisions regarding the support and funding of
important scientific research.

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J. Science, Technology, and'Other Realms • ■ .

Although there are .distinctive characteristics of the knowledge and processes
that characterize science and technology, there are many connections to, and
overlaps with, other realms of human knowledge and understanding.
Example: The Uncertainty Principle in science, the Hawthorne Effect in
social psychology all express similar types o f ideas within the realm of their
own disciplines.

WHAT IS THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?

SCIENCE is a systematized body of knowledge based on nature and the facts of

life. The contents or facts of this knowledge are gathered through keen observation
and relentless experimentations. The ideas generated are also products of further
investigations. Science involves the human attempt to generate testable concepts,
generalizations and theories which explain natural phenomena and have predictable
capabilities.

Scientists share certain basic beliefs and attitudes about what they do and how they
view their work This is the nature of science and what can be learned about it.

• The World Is Understandable

Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in regular
patterns that are understandable through careful, systematic study. For
instance, the same principles of motion and gravitation that explain the motion
of falling objects on the surface of the earth also explain the motion of the moon
. and the planets.

• Scientific Knowledge Is Durable

Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and accept
some uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is durable.

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 G eneral Education

• for example, in fprmulating the theory of relativity, Albert Einstein did riot *
discard the Newtonian laws of motion but rather showed that they are only
approximations of limited application within-a more general concept. Moreover,
the growing ability of scientists to make accurate predictions about natural
phenomena provides convincing evidence that we really are progressing
our understanding of how the world works. Continuity and stability are as
characteristic of science as change is.

• Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to Ail Questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way.
There are, for instance, beliefs that— by their very nature— cannot be proved
or disproved (such as the existence of supernatural powers and beings, or
the true purposes of life). In other cases, a scientific approach that may be
valid is likely to be rejected as irrelevant by people who hold on to certain
beliefs (such as in miracles, fortune-telling, astrology, and superstition). Nor do
scientists have the means to settle issues concerning good and evil, although
they can sometimes contribute to the discussion of such issues by identifying
the likely consequences of particular actions, which may be helpful in weighing
alternatives.

TECHNOLOGY is the application of-scientific, theories, laws, concepts, and

principles. It is described as the means by which humans control or modify their
environment which can be traced to Paleolithic cultures when humans shaped
tools out of stone. Technology provides the eyes and ears of science. The electronic
compiler," for example, has led to substantial progress in the study of weather
systems, demographic patterns, gene structure, and other comp[ex systems that
woulcTnofhave been possible. ,.

• All Technologies Involve Control

All systems, from the simplest lo the most complex, require control to keep
them operating properly. For example, a bakintj oven is a fairly simple system

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 N atu ral Science

that compares the information from a temperature sensor to a control setting

and turns the heating element up or down to keep the temperature within a
small range. Moreover, almost all but the simplest household appliances used
today include microprocessors to control their performance.

• Technologies Always Have Side Effects

In addition to its intended benefits, every design is likely to have unintended side
effects in its production and application. The effects of ordinary technologies
may be individually small but collectively significant. Refrigerators, for example,
have had a predictably favorable impact on diet and on food distribution
systems. Because there are so many refrigerators, however, the tiny leakage of
a gas used in their cooling systems may have substantial adverse effects on the
earth's atmosphere.

Humankind has been using the technological enterprise to change our

world to accommodate our needs- new metal alloys; devices for agriculture,
transportation, health, and communication; and technological advances such as
seedless grapes, powdered milk, biodegradable soap, plastics, and Styrofoam.

The images of science sit easily with the images of modernization - electronic
devices, robotics, nuclear energy, in-vitro fertilization, jet planes, space
explorations, genetic engineering - on one end, the recognition of environmental
pollution, resource depletion and urbanization - on the other side.

• All Technological Systems Can Fail

Most modem technological systems, from transiStor-radios to airliners, have
been engineered and produced to be remarkably reliable. Failure is rare enough
to be surprising. Yet the larger and more complex a system is, the more ways
there are in which it can go wrong— and the more widespread the possible
effects of failure.

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 Natnral Science

Examples of such “fail-safe” designs are bombs that cannot explode when the
fuse malfunctions or automobile windows that shatter into rounded, connected
chunks rather than into sharp, flying fragments. All of the means of preventing
or minimizing failure are likely to increase cost. But no matter what precautions
are taken- or resources invested, risk of technological failure can never be
reduced to zero.

WHAT ARE THE BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?

A scientifically literate person has working knowledge of the basic concepts and
principles of the natural sciences. Scientific knowledge is holistic, i.e., it is gathered
by various branches of science contributing to an over-all conceptual scheme which
is internally consistent.

• Life Science (Biology) - deals with living things and their parts and actions.
Smaller branches of life science include:
> Zoology - the study of animals
> Botany - the study of plants >
• Earth Science - deals with the study of the Earth and its rocks, dceans,
volcanoes, earthquakes, atmosphere, and other features. This includes
astronomy, that explore nature beyond the Earth. This study objects such as
stars, planets and moons.
• Physical Science - deals with the.study of matter. This includes:
> Chemistry - explore what substances are made of and how they change
and combine.
> Physics - explore the study of relationship between matter and energy.

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The scientific enterprise comprises at least two factors: processes and products.
' The products of science include the facts, .concepts, theories, laws, and applications
that, occur as a result of doing science-that is, scientific content

Scientific Facts: Below are some notions considered to be facts:

1. The'earth rotates on its axis once every 24 hours.
2. Seventy-six percent of all animal species are insects.
3. Green plants contain chlorophyll in the cells of their leaves.
4. Water molecules are made of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
5. A freely falling object accelerates toward the earth at the rate of 9.8 m/s2
6. The temperature at which pure water freezes is O’ Celsius or 32‘ Fahrenheit.

Scientific Concepts: These are ideas that combine several facts or observations. A
concept is an "observed regularity in events or objects” (Novak, 1984).
1.Green plants need light in order to grow. - relates the two observations of light
to the amount of growth of green plants
2. The human body uses food for energy and growth.
3. Some chemicals fizz when they come into contact with other chemicals.
4. It takes more force to slide a book on sandpaper than on smooth paper. ■
5. Running water cuts gullies in soft rock.
6. Heavy marble roll farther than light marbles when both are given the same
push.

Scientific Theories: Theories are developed to explain concepts or other observed

regularities. These are proven hypothesis (tentative answers to questions).

Here are some examples of theories:

1. The Kinetic Molecular Theory: Molecules are in motion, and the rate of motion
varies with temperature.
2. Einstein's General Theory of Relativity: The faster an object goes, the greater its
mass becomes.

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3. Theory of Evolution: Sp.ecies adapt to their environments, and those that are
most fit survive. * •
4. Theory of Plate Tectonics: The outer shell of the earth consists. of several moving
plates on which the oceans and continents lie.
5. Cellular theory of life: Living things are made of cells.

Scientific Laws: are statements generally accepted to be' true, universal, and
absolute. They can be expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation. They
don't really need any complex external proofs; they are accepted at face value
based upon the fact that they have always been observed to be true.

Some examples of scientific laws:

1. Newton’s Laws of Motion: Inertia, Acceleration and Interaction
2. The Law of Universal Gravitation: All objects attract all other objects with a force
that depends on their masses and the distance between them.
3. The Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
they can only be transformed from one form to another
4. The Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy: The sum of matter and energy
in the universe is constant.
5. The Law of Segregation: During reproduction, the two factors that control
each trait separate (segregate), with one factor from each pair passed to the
offspring.

CONCEPTS IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE

A. Energy
>•■ Energy has always been defined as the ability to do work. Energy makes
change; it does things for us. In strict scientific terms energy is classified
into two main forms: kinetic and potential energy.

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 Natural Science

> Kinetic energy is defined as the energy of a moving object. Speeding cars,
a waterfall, a rock falling from a cliff or the ticking of a clock are examples
of objects that have kinetic energy. The various forms include electrical
energy, mechanical energy, thermal energy, radiant energy.
• Electrical energy is the movement of electrical charges. All matter is
made of tiny particles called atoms. These are made up of even smaller
particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons. When a force is applied,
some of the electrons move. Electrical charges moving through a wire
is called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy.
• Mechanical energy is the movement of objects and substances from
one place to another when a force is applied according to Newton’s
Laws of Motion.
• Thermal energy is the internal energy in substances— the vibration
and movement of the atoms and molecules within substances. This
pertains to the kinetic energy of the molecules within an object, it
is technically incorrect to refer to heat as thermal energy. Objects
possess thermal energy; heat is the transfer of energy from one object
to another. It is an evidence of energy.
• Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse
waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays
and radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy and is another
evidence of energy.

> Potential energy is defined as the energy in matter due to its position or
the arrangement of its parts. The various forms of potential energy include
gravitational potential energy, stored mechanical (elastic potential) energy,,
chemical potential energy, and nuclear energy
• Chemical Energy is energy stored inthe bonds of atoms and molecules.
It is the energy that holds these particles together. The energy stored in
gasoline is released by burning. A jnotorboat uses this released energy
•to turn its propeller. There are many examples of chemical potential

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energy being converted to kinetic energy toilo work. Energy in food is

used by our bodies to move. A lighted firecracker explodes with a loud
sound when chemical energy is released.
• Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or place. A’rock resting
at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy. Water in a
reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.
When something is lifted or suspended in air, work is done on the
object against the pull of gravity. This work is converted gravitational
potential energy.
• Stored Mechanical Energy is energy in stretched rubber bands, in
compressed springs, trampolines, and even our skin. They have the
potential to do work or resist being stretched out of shape.
• Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and can be
released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power
plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The
sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion.

> One of the reasons energy is hard to conceptualize is that it is constantly

changing from one form to another. When this happens it is called an
energy transformation.
• The law of conservation of energy says that energy is neither created
nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn’t disappear. We change
it from one form of energy into another.
• A car engine bums gasoline, converting the chemical energy in
gasoline into mechanical energy. Solar cells change radiant energy
into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of
energy in the universe stays the same.

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> Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a toss of
usable energy. The total amount of energy available for transformation is
almost always decreasing.
• The human body is like a machine, and the fuel is food. Food gives the
energy to move, breathe, and think. But the body is not very efficient at
converting food into useful work. The rest of the energy is lost as heat.
• Almost all of the energy stored in the molecules of gasoline used
during an automobile trip goes, by way of friction and exhaust, into
producing a slightly warmer, car, road, and air.
• When energy is transformed into heat energy that diffuses all over,
further transformations is less likely to xcur. Energy follows a one­
way path. It enters the living system in the form electromagnetic waves
- light and leaves as heat.

> Energy sources are classified into two groups— renewable and
nonrenewable. Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal
energy, hydropower, solar energy, and wind energy. They can be replenished
in a short time. Nonrenewable energy supplies are limited. Petroleum, for
example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea
plants and animals.

> Classification of energy

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D r. L cticia V. Garris PNU LET Reviewer Tm

 Natural Science

> Sound, motidn, thermal energy, and light are not easily classified as kinetic
and potential energy. They are evidences of energy.
• Light is an electromagnetic radiation and has no mass, hence, it has
neither kinetic nor potential energy.
• Sound is produced wtren a force causes an object or substance to
vibrate— the energy is transferred through the substance in a wave,
o The human ear can hear only those sounds caused by objects
vibrating between about 20 decibels (vibs/sec) and about 16,000
decibels.
o Ultrasonic waves are sound waves that vibrate very fast with
frequencies too high to be detected by the human ear. They have
greater penetrating power than audible sound waves and can be
used to see in utero fetuses and the functioning of human hearts.
• Heat consists of moving molecules in air or in an object, and mechanical
energy is the combination of kinetic and potential energy of a moving
object. A pendulum has mechanical energy; it continually converts
kinetic energy into gravitational potential energy and back into kinetic
energy as it swings back and forth.

B. Structure of Matter
> Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. They differ greatly in
shape, density, flexibility, texture, toughness, and color; in their abilityto give off,
absorb, bend, or reflect light; in what form they take at different temperatures;
in their responses to each other; and in hundreds of other ways.
• Homogeneous system is characterized by a one-phase system whose
■ characteristics are uniform throughout. These are observed either
as a pure substance or in solutions. An example of a homogeneous
substance would be pure water, which contains only the compound
H20 or pure table salt that contains only the compound NaCI. Two or
mpre gases will always mix to form just one phase.

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• Elements* are the simplest form of matter since they cannot be

decomposed further even through chemical means. Elements
are further classified into metal, non-metal and metalloid. Some
characteristics of metal: luster, malleability and ductility,' high tensile
strength, goodxonductors of heat and electricity. -
• Nonmetals are characterized as are poor conductors (thus, making
them good insulators) of heat and electricity, neither malleable nor
ductile, brittle, (if in the solid phase)
• Compounds are pure substances that are composed of two or more
elements, which are chemically combined in a definite ratio by mass.
There are two ways of grouping compounds - as organic or inorganic:
and as acid, base or neutral. Basically, carbon-containing compounds
are organic. Sugar, acetone, acetic acid, methane, ethylene, alcohol
are organic compounds. However, carbides, carbonates, bicarbonates,
cyanides, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are exemptions.
• Inorganic compounds are those compounds that do not contain
-carbon- Salt, lye and water are some examples.
• Acids are usually distinguished from bases through the use of
indicators. Indicators are either weak organic acids or bases that
change color over a range of pH values. Litmus is a common indicator.
Acid turns the color of blue litmus to red while base turns red to blue.
Bases turn red litmus paper to blue. Acids when dissolved in water
yield hydrogen ions (H+) while bases yield hydroxide ions (OH-).
Unlike acids and bases, neutral compounds do not change the color of
indicators.
• Solution is the only homogeneous mixture, made up of two or
more pure substances that are physically combined. Alloys are solid
solutions which are combinations of metals. Salt and water forms ...
a Jiquid.sojutlop while air is a mixture of gases. | g ^ n s ^ ! f e i n . a $'
s61ventJ(the material that does thedSsofvirig of another material): and

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 G eneral E d ucation

|a solute (the material.Mt;-is dissolyed). Water is called the "universal

. .solvent" because it dissolves many substances. The warmer the
solvent, the more solute that can be dissolved.
• Heterogeneous system is characterized by the presence of two or
more distinct phases, which have different properties.
o ^offords a'nd sus^^sions We ^eterogepeougj.Of the three types of
mixtures, only colloids exhibit Tyndall effect! Tyndall effect is the
scattering of light,
o rSuspensions.are mixtures ofa solid, liquid and/or gas materials.
Examples of suspensions are soil particles in water, halo-halo, oil
in water.

> The components of mixtures can be separated by ordinary physical

processes. The choice of separation technique is dependent on the type
of mixture and the characteristics of its components.
• Filtration is a separation technique that is being used in separating
insoluble material from the liquid by allowing the mixture to pass
through a filter paper. Other methods of separating insoluble solids
from a liquid include: decantation, centrifugation and sedimentation.
• Two immiscible liquids can be separated by using a separatory funnel.
Whereas, a; mixture that is composed of a metal and a non-metal can
be easily separated by: using-^magnet;" '
• A mixture that is made up of two solids can be separated either by
using a sieve or by dissolution. On the other hand, soluble solids from
a liquid can be separated through evaporation or distillation.

> Classification of matter according to composition:

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W ttm S LET Reviewer D r. L eticia V. Cacris

 General Education

> Mixtures of substances in the waters,'land, and air may result to some
major environmental problems: *- _ .
• Water Pollution - contamination of, water by foreign matter such as
■ microorganisms, chemicals, industrial or other wastes or sewage.
° Euthrophication - a natural or artificial process on which a body of
water contains high-concentrations of chemical-elements required
. for life making the producers bloom directly nourishing most
bacteria than aquatic organisms like fishes. This results to red
tides.
• Green House Effect: a process in which sunlight is not capable of
escaping the earth’s atmosphere due to suspended particles in air
resulting to global warming

Force and Motion

> Forces are interaction between two bodies. They can either be contact or non-
contact force.

> Contact forces result when two bodies directly touch each other as in walking,
running, playing, writing and pushing objects where friction is observed.
• Friction is a force that opposes the natural motion of an object. It is often
described as the resistance an object meets when its surface rubs against -
another surface. It acts in a direction opposite the natural motion of the
moving object.
• There are 3 types of frictional forces depending on the type of motion that
occurs between two surfaces. Static friction - if there is no relative motion
between two surfaces. Kinetic friction is the type of friction that opposes
sliding motion; is weaker than static friction. The friction force that exists in
rolling motion is called rolling friction. This is the weakest frictional force
that opposes motion.

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 N atural Science

> Non-contact forces are forces that occur when the fields around objects
interact with another field located around another body. The bodies themselves
are not directly touching each .other, but only their fields interact with one
• another.
• Gravitational force is observed when earth is attracted to the sun, earth
also pulls the sun. An-object falling freely in the air is acted upon by a force
• of gravity that cause it to accelerate, (g = 9.8
o Gravity is the force behind rainfall, the power of rivers, the pulse
of tides; It pulls the planets and stars toward their centers to form
spheres, holds planets in orbit, and gathers cosmic dust together to
start the process of star formation,
o Gravitational forces involve a gravitational field that affects space
around any mass. The strength of the field around an object is
proportional to its mass and diminishes with distance from its center.
(F = G m,m2 / r2) where G = 6.67 x 10'” Nm/kg2
• Electrostatic force is the interaction between the electric field of one
charged body another charged body
o On an atomic scale, electric forces between oppositely charged
protons and electrons hold atoms and molecules together
o An electrically insulating material such as glass or rubber does not
ordinarily allow any passage of charges through it. An electrically
conducting material such as copper will offer very little resistance to
the motion of charges, so electric forces acting on it readily produce
a current of charges. (Most electrical wires are a combination of
extremes: a very good conductor covered by a very good insulator.)
• Magnetic force is the interaction between magnetic fields pulling or
pushing each oth.er - like poles attract each other, unlike poles, repel each
other.

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o Magnetic forces are very closely related to electric forces— hence the
term "electromagnetic force". Both are thought of as acting by means
of fields: an electric charge has an electric field in the space around it
that affects other charges, and a magnet has a magnetic field around
it that affects other magnets,
o Moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example, electric
currents circulating in the earth's core give the earth an extensive
magnetic field, which we detect from the orientation of our compass
needles.

> The interplay of electric and magnetic forces is also the basis of many
technological design, such as electric motors (in which currents produce
motion), generators (in which motion produces currents), and television tubes
(in which a beam of moving electric charges is bent back and forth by a
periodically changing magnetic field). More generally, a changing electric field
induces a magnetic field, and vice versa.

> When an unbalanced force does act on an object, the object’s motion changes.
It may change its speed or its direction of motion or both. The greater the
amount of unbalanced force, the more rapidly a given object’s speed or
direction of motion changes; the more massive an object is, the less rapidly its
speed or direction changes in response to any given force.

> Sir Isaac Newton developed three laws of motion that explains force and
motipn,.... .......... ' . . \ .v; v
• y ^ |^ |ib t iin r§miiiii$ atrest and ah object in riiotien
femains n* mqfiOn^T3trafght tye and at constant speed u/iless acted
(Inertia) ex: This is the" reason for
seat belts"and airbags as safety devices in cars. (Law of Inertia)
• 2jg|pvy|)f Mdti0i - force is diijectiy proportional to massand’accelerition
(F = ma) (LawTof Acceleration) • '

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• Srdnip liaW'pt motion^ - states that for every force there is atn equal afftd
; oppoSite^orpe. This is the familiar “action: reactibn" system and it governs
the "movement of rockets and jet airplanes'(Law of Interaction)

> Some complicated motions can be described not in terms of forces directly but
in terms of the pattern of motion, such as vibrations and waves. Examples are
sound waves, light waves, earthquakes, or surface waves on water.

> Wave behavior can be described in terms, of how fast the disturbance
propagates (speed, v), and in terms of the distance between successive peaks
of the disturbance (wavelength, a). Wavelength can greatly influence how a
wave interacts with matter— how well it is transmitted, absorbed, reflected,
or diffracted..

> Electromagnetic waves include the regions from longest wavelength-radio

waves, microwaves, radiant heat or infrared radiation, visible light (red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet), ultraviolet radiation, x rays/and gamma rays
- shortest wavelength.

> Atmospheric gas, ozone, absorbs some of the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight—
the wavelengths that produce burning, tanning, and cancer in the skin of human
beings.

> Ultrasonic waves are sound waves that vibrate very fast. Their frequencies are
too high to be detected by the human ear. Ultrasonic sound waves have greater
penetrating power than audible sound waves andean be used to see in utero
fetuses and the functioning of human hearts. •

> Doppler effects are evident in the apparent cllange in pitch of an automobile horn
as it passes the observer. The change in thg wavelength of light from stars and
galaxies alsp illustrates Doppler. Because the light emitted from most of them

D r. Lvricia V’. O r r is
 General Education

shifts toward longeftoavelengths (that is,.toward the red end of the spectrum),
astronomers^conclude that galaxies are all moving away from one another— and
hence that we are in a generally expanding universe. (Doppler shift)

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

> Earth is a fairly small planet. The distance of the earth from the sun ensures that
energy reaches the planet at a rate sufficient to sustain life. The earth is mostly
rock, with three-fourths of its surface covered by a relatively thin layer of water
and the entire planet enveloped by a thin blanket of air. Bulges in the water layer
are raised on both sides of the planet by the gravitational pull of the moon and
sun, producing high tides about twice a day along ocean shores. Similar bulges
are produced in the blanket of air as well.

> The earth is approximately 1.28 x 104 km in diameter at the equator. The
diameter at the poles is approximately 70 km less than at the equator because
of its rapid rotation on its axis (equatorial bulge).

> The motion of the earth and its position with regard to the sun and the moon
has noticeable effects. The earth’s one-year revolution around the sun, because
of the tilt of the earth's axis, changes how directly sunlight falls on one part or
another of the earth.

> This difference in heating different parts of the earth’s surface produces
seasonal variations in climate. The rotation of the planet on its axis every
24 hours produces the planet's night-and-day cycle. The combination of the
earth’s motion and the moon's own orbit around the earth., once in about
271/3, results in the phases of the moon (new moon, 1st quarter, full moon,
last quarter.
 Natural Science

> Transfer of fieat energy at the interfaces of the atmosphere with the land
and pceans produces layers at different temperatures in both the air and the
oceans. These layers rise or sink or mix, giving rise to winds and ocean currents
that carry heat energy between warm and cool regions. The earth's rotation
. curves the flow of winds and ocean currents, which are further deflected by the
shape of the land.
• The water cycle plays an important part in determining climatic patterns—
evaporating from the surface, rising and cooling, condensing into clouds
and then into snow or rain, and falling again to the surface, where it collects
in rivers, lakes, and porous layers of rock. There are also large areas on the
earth's surface covered by thick ice (such as Antarctica), which interacts
with the atmosphere and oceans in affecting worldwide variations in
climate.

> Fresh water is an essential resource for daily life and industrial processes,
obtained from rivers and lakes and from water that moves below the earth's
surface (groundwater). Many sources of fresh water cannot be used because
they have been polluted. It can be very expensive to clean up polluted air and
water, restore destroyed forests and fishing grounds, or restore or preserve
eroded soils of poorly managed agricultural areas.

> Although the oceans and atmosphere are very large and have a great capacity
to absorb and recycle materials naturally, they do have their limits. They have
only a finite capacity to withstand change without generating major ecological
alterations that may also have adverse effects on human activities. Wind, tides,
and solar radiation can also tie harnessed to provide sources of energy.

> Forces within the earth'cause continual changes on its surface. The solid crust
of the earth— including both the continents and ocean basins— consists of
• "separate sections that overlie a hot, almost molten layer.

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> The theory of plate tectonics is a unifying theory of the continental drift and
seafloor spreading theories. The current position of continents on the globe
is thought to be the result of the break-up and subsequent movement of the
plates making up the super continent, Pangea, about 250 million years ago.
Pangea is formed from the collision of continents that formed from the original
crust of the earth and started moving around 2 >4 billion years ago.

> The surface of the earth undergoes continuous cycles of building structures
and tearing them down. Weathering is process of wearing structures down
while erosion refers to moving the weathered materials. Canyons, gullies, and
valleys are the result of weathering and erosion by rivers and streams.

> Human activities have changed the earth's land surface, oceans, and
atmosphere. For instance,, reducing the amount of forest cover on the earth’s
surface has led to a dramatic increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which
in turn may be leading to increased average temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere and surface.

> Smoke and other substances from human activity interact chemically with the
atmosphere and produce undesirable effects such as smog, acid rain, and an
increase in the damaging ultraviolet radiation that penetrates the atmosphere.

> Intensive farming has stripped land of vegetation and topsoil, creating virtual
deserts in some parts of the-world.

The Universe
> The earth has existed for only about a third of the history of the universe and is
in comparison a mere speck in space.

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 G eneral Education

>' Our sun is a medium-sized star orbiting near the edge of the arm of an
ordinary disk-shaped galaxy of stars, the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains many
billion stars, and the universe contains many billion such galaxies.

> The entire contents of the known universe expanded explosively into existence
from a single hot, dense, chaotic mass more than ten billion years ago. Stars
coalesced out of clouds of the lightest elements (hydrogen and helium), heated
up from the energy of falling together, and began releasing nuclear energy
from the fusion of light elements into heavier ones in their extremely hot, dense
cores.

> There are also a great many smaller bodies of rock and ice orbiting the sun.
Some of those that the earth encounters in its yearly orbit around the sun
glow and disintegrate from friction as they plunge into the atmosphere— and
sometimes impact the ground.

> Other chunks of rock mixed with ice have such long and off-center orbits that
they periodically come very close to the sun, where some of their surface
material is boiled off by the sun's radiation and pushed into a long illuminated
tail that we see as a comet.

> In studying the universe, a variety of tools are used. These tools include radio
and x-ray telescopes that are sensitive to a broad spectrum of information
coming to us from space. Computers can undertake increasingly complicated
calculations of gravitational systems or nuclear reactions, finding patterns
in data and deducing the implications of theories. Space probes send back
detailed pictures and other data from distant planets in our own solar system;
and huge “atom smashers” that simulate conditions in the early universe and
probe the inner workings of atoms.

D r. Leticia V. Catris
 G eneral Education

CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE •

Living organisms are made of the same components as all other matter, ihvolve the
same kind of transformations of energy, and move using the same basic kinds of
forces.

The Cellular Theory of Life

> Living things are made of cells. Some organisms such as bacterium, an amoeba
and a paramecium, are made of single cells (unicellular organisms); others are
multicellular.

> Complex organisms are made of different kinds of cells specialized to carry out
specific functions, all working together to accomplish the total needs of life (Ex:
cells specialized for growing hair, secreting digestive juices, making bones and
muscles, and carrying oxygen)
• A group of similar cells performing similar functions form tissues (ex. are
human tissues are muscle tissue, blood tissue and bone tissue).
• A group of tissues working together forms an organ. Examples of human
organs are stomach, the biceps muscle, and the heart.
• Several organs working together form a system. All the systems make up
the organism. Examples of human systems include the circulatory system,
the digestive system, and the muscular system. Plant systems include the
root system, leaf system and the stem system.

> The cell is the fundamental unit of life, made up of a protoplasm, enclosed by a
plasma membrane, and containing organelles.
• The plasma membrane provides form and structure for the celf, and
permits inward passage of waste products.
• The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains the chromosomeis,
which are made of genes, which, in turn, are made of DNA. Most directions
for cellular activity are given by the DNA in the nucleus.

D r. L e ticia V. Cacris
 Natural Science

• The cytoplasm in the cell includes all the material outside the nucleus.

> In plants cells, the plasma membrane is surrounded by a cell wall made of
cellulose to provide rigidity for the cells because plants do not have a skeletal
structure.
• Plant cells also contain plastids, tiny colored bodies'that provide color and
are used for storage or as chemical factories. Chloroplasts are plastids
that contain chlorophyll, which is used in making food. When the green
leaves die in autumn, the chlorophyll fades and other plastids can be seen,
resulting in the brightly colored fall foliage.

> Cells have basic living functions, some of which are: (1) to manufacture proteins
and other materials to help build the cell; (2) to manufacture energy; and (3) to
reproduce.
• Green plants have the unique capability of manufacturing their own food in
the presence of light from water, minerals, and carbon dioxide in a process
called photosynthesis. The products of this reaction are glucose (energy),
H20, and 02. (Photosynthesis)
• Both oxygen and glucose are used in energy production. All cells; including
animal and plant cells, use oxygen for manufacturing energy and release
carbon dioxide as a waste product. Thus, oxygen is used by both plants
and animal cells, and carbon dioxide is given off by both plants and animal
cells.

> Cells reproduce either by mitosis (somatic cells) or meiosis (sex cells)
• Mitosis produce two new cells whose chromosomes are the same in
number as the parent cell (diploid)
• Meiosis produce two new cells with half the number of chromosomes as
the parent cell (haploid)

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N atural Science

Structure and Function of Plants

> Plants contain organs called roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.
• The roots provide anchorage for ihe plant and, through tiny root hairs,
enable plats to absorb water and nutritional elements from the soil.
• The stems transport the nutrients to the leaves through specialized cells
• The leaves are the food- manufacturing sites of the plants.

> Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs of the plants.

• The petals attract insects and birds to help disperse pollen for cross­
fertilization.
• The male reproductive organ is the stamen, which manufactures the pollen.
• The female reproductive organ is the pistil, which' has a sticky top called a
stigma to capture the pollen; a style to transport the pollen nucleus to the
ovary; and the ovary, which manufactures the ovules.
• When the pollen nuclei join the ovule nuclei, fertilized seeds result.

> Plants move in response to gravity, light, touch, water, temperature and some
chemicals
• Roots pointing downward shows plants respond to gravity (geotropism).
• Plants also tend to grow toward areas with the most light, causing them
to bend; houseplants bend toward the light and forest plants grow tall,
reaching for the sun. (phototropism)
• Some plants, (makahiya) have leaves that quickly close when touched
(thigmotropism).

Structure and Function of Animals

> The basic functions of all animals include nutrition, respiration, excretion,
circulation, response, movement, regulation, and reproduction.
• The digestive‘system takes food in, processes it for use by cells, and
eliminates indigestible materials.

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• The respiratory system is adapted for extracting the required oxygen either
from the air or from water and removing carbon dioxide.
• Excretion is accomplished .through kidneys and other .excretory organs that
extract liquid waste from body fluids and eliminate it from the organism.
• A complex circulatory system ensures that nutrients, gases, and regulatory
hormones are transported from the specialized systems to each individual
cell and that wastes can be removed from each cell and delivered to the
excretory and respiratory organs.
• Regulatory glands secrete hormones to keep all cells working harmoniously.
• An intricate network of nerves and often a central brain structure
coordinate all systems and permit movement, thought, and interaction with
the environment.
• The muscular system allows the organism to move.
• A skeletal system provides rigidity in animals that do not otherwise have
the required structure. Skeletons may be made of bone, cartilage, or water
(such as hydroskeletons in certain worms). Some animals, such as crayfish
and lobsters, have exoskeletons (external skeletons) that are made of
chitin.
• Reproduction is accomplished either sexually or asexually through
specialized organs and specialized systems that ensure perpetuation of the
species.

E. Reproduction, Life Cycles, and Heredity

> Reproduction occurs in 'two ways: asexually and sexually.
• In asexual reproduction, organisms are derived from only one parent
(bacteria, algae, molds, fungi, many lower plants, protozoans, sponges,
and coelenterates as well as in a few higher order animals).
. • Sexual reproduction requires the union of a male gamete (reproductive
cfell) and a female gamete. •
• Chromosomes are made of genes with strands of QNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid). DNA carries the code of fife, which is the code for protein

D r. Lcticia V. Carris
 G eneral E d u catio n

production. .
• Chromo.somes come in pairs, with a gene for each trait on each
member of the pair; thus each trait is determined by two genes that
may be dominant or recessive.'
• Dominant traits in humans include unattached earlobes, brown eyes,
curly hair, polydactyly (more than 10 fingers or toes), and the ability to
curl one’s tongue.
•* Recessive traits include attached earlobes, blue or hazel eyes, straight
hair, the normal number of fingers and toes, and the inability to curl
one’s tongue.

> Living organisms move through definite lifecycles: they come into being, they
grow, they may metamorphose, they mature, they reproduce, and they die.

Genetics and Evolution

> When gametes are formed, abnormal (or mutant genes can be formed by
erroneous duplication of the DNA, by physical transformation of the positions of
molecules making up the DNA strands, or by external causes such as radiation,
X-rays, or gamma rays.

> The basic principle of evolution is “survival of the fittest". This means that the
individuals best adapted to the environment generally produce the greatest
number of offspring.
• The theory of evolution offers an explanation for the immense diversity of
life found on earth, through the process of natural selection; organisms
adapt better to their environments.

G. Ecology
> Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with their environment
and with each other. The environment in which living organisms exist is
called the biosphere, and includes land, water, and air.

Dr. Lcticia V. C.atris

 Natural Science

•The basic unit of ecological study is the ecosystem, a community of

living organisms and their nonliving environment, interacting with each
other. It is the environment through which energy flows arid minerals
recycle.
A balanced ecosystem has three fundamental characteristics: (i) there
is a relatively constant source of energy (the sun); (2) The sun’s energy
is converted to glucose, which is needed by the living organisms; (3)
Organic matter and nutrients are successfully recycled.

> Energy is transmitted through an ecosystem primarily, by means of the

food chain. Plants are the sources of all food in any ecosystem since they
manufacture their own food. Some animals are herbivores, some are
omnivores while others are carnivores, (energy follows a one-way path)

> Recycling of organic matter and nutrients within an ecosystem occurs as

plants and animals excrete waste materials back into their environment
and die. Microorganisms recycle all this material back to the environment,
(biogeochemical cycles)

> Humans may upset the balance in ecosystems. Air and water pollution
result to the death of some organisms. Increased levels of carbon dioxide
may cause localized or global warming, upsetting the balance of energy.
Increased CFC levels reduce the thickness of the ozone layer, causing
increased levels of ultraviolet radiation.

PNU LET Review er f e f e M

 N atural Science

WHAT ARE THE’PROCESSES OF *

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY? .

A scientifically literate person has acquired and regularly practices the basic and
integrated science process skills. There simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists
always follow, no one path that leads them unerringly to scientific knowledge.
Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships
in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item
' cause something else to vary in a predictable way.

Steps in the Scientific Method

ASKING QUESTION- Identifying the problem

Asking question based on the inference made to identify the problem related to the
observation; an investigation usually begins with an observation of a phenomenon.

To make their observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments (such as
microscopes) that enhance those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics
quite different from what humans can sense (such as magnetic fields). Scientists
observe passively (earthquakes, bird migrations), make collections (rocks, shells),
and actively probe the world (as by boring into the earth's crust or administering
experimental medicines).

FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. Normally, it is a
general statement about the relationship between the manipulated variable and a
responding variable in order to explain the.questions ask. .

IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES

A variable is a factor that affects other factors in an experiment. In a scientific
investigation, we need to identify all-related variables. This step is to test the

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 G en eral E d u catio n

consistency'in the experiment and to relate the manipulated variable to the

responding variable.

There are three types of variable, namely

i. Manipulated variable — the factor that is purposely changed in an experiment .
ii. Responding variable —- the factor that changes with the manipulated variable
iii. Fixed variables — the factors that are kept constant throughout an experiment
This is to ensure that other factors do not affect the results of the experiment.

One can control conditions deliberately and precisely to obtain evidence. For
example, controlling the temperature, changing the concentration of chemicals, or
choosing which organisms mate with which others. By varying just one condition at
a time, one can hope to identify its exclusive effects on what happens.

Often, however, control of conditions may be impractical (as in studying stars), or

unethical (as in studying people), or likely to distort the natural phenomena (as in
studying wild animals in captivity). In such cases, observations have to be made
over a wide range of naturally occurring conditions to infer what the influence of
various factors might be.

DESIGNING AND CONDUCTING THE EXPERIMENT

Always keep in mind that the main purpose of the experiment is to test the hypothesis

Decide how to carry out the experiment, including determine the material, apparatus,
experiment set ups and the procedures to take. The experiment tests whether your
hypothesis is true or false. It. is important for the experiment to be a fair test.

Conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while
keeping all other conditions the same. Repeat the experiments several times to
make sure that the first results weren’t just an accident

D r. JLecicia V. Garris
 General Education

AN/U.YZINGAND'INTERPRETING DATA ’
After collecting the cfata, you will need to analyze the results of the experiment. The
results can be presented in various forms, such as a table, graph or chart.

MAKING A CONCLUSION
Draw -conclusions based on the observations and results. State whether the
hypothesis is true or false.

WHAT ARE THE ATTITUDES AND

VALUES EXHIBITED BY A SCIENTIST?

Science is in many respects the systematic application of some highly regarded

human values— integrity, diligence, fairness, curiosity, openness to new ideas,
skepticism, and imagination. Science particularly strongly fosters three of these
attitudes and values— curiosity, openness to new ideas (the joy of discovery and the
satisfaction of intellectual growth throughout life) and informed skepticism (borne
out by the evidence, is logically consistent with other principles that are not in
question, explains more than its rival theories, and has the potential to lead to new
knowledge).

As a social activity, science inevitably reflects social values and viewpoints The
strongly held traditions of accurate recordkeeping, openness, and replication,
blended by the critical review of one's work by peers, serve to keep the vast majority
of scientists well within the bounds of ethical professional behavior.
a

Dr. L cticia V. Garris

 N atural Science

WHAT APE DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS?

> • Materials Technology - this involves the use and development of materials to ■
achieve a desired result..; construction, preservation and recycling of materials.
- • The characteristics of natural materials could be changed by processing, -
such as the tanning of leather and the firing of clay. Plastics are synthesized
' and designed to make automobile and space vehicle parts, food packaging
and fabrics, artificial hip joints and dissolving stitches.
• The disposal of used materials has become a problem. Some used
materials, such as organic wastes, can be returned safely to the
environment. But some materials, such as plastics, are not easily recycled
nor do they decompose quickly when returned to the environment.
Radioactive waste so hazardous for such a long time that how best to
dispose of them is not clear.

> Biotechnology - involves agriculture, tissue culture, food production, health

and the environment, industrial processes, genetic engineering
• The success of genetic engineering has helped to increase the natural
variability within plant species by using radiation to induce mutations, so
that there are more choices for selective breeding. For example, plants
can be given the genetic program for synthesizing substances that give
them resistance to insect predators.
• The widespread use of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides has greatly
increased useful farm output. However, their effectiveness may diminish
as organisms develop genetically determined resistance to them, thereby
requiring increased,amounts of pesticides or the development of new ones.
• • An alternative to the chemical control of pests is introducing organisms
from other ecosystems in an effort to reduce the number of pests in the
agricultural ecosystem (such as by using foreign insects that feed on local
weeds).

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> Process Technology - this include chemical and industrial processes,

mechanical systems, manufacturing, and transportation. Increasing automation
requires, less direct labor and fewer skilled crafts, but more engineering,
computer programming, quality control, supervision,' and maintenance.
Automation reduces the workers’ control and may eliminate some workers’
jobs even while it creates others. Flexibility and skill in learning a succession of
new job roles have become increasingly important as the pace of technological
change quickens.

> Electronic/Control technology - this involves the design and production of

■ simple circuits, robotics, and control systems, electronic devices.
• With the invention of devices to generate and control electric current
information could be encoded and conveyed over long distances by wires.
With radio waves, the same information could be encoded as changes
in wave pattern and distributed in all directions through the atmosphere
without the rjeed of connecting wires. The efficient control of light waves in
lasers has made possible the encoding and transmitting of information as
pulses in light intensity over optical fibers.
• . Robots are used to perform the tasks of mass production. Instructions for
processing are used to control the processes electronically, rather than
. , having to be interpreted and carried out by people.

> Information and" Communication Technology- this deals with locating and
acquiring ..storing? sorting, receiviilg communication information in variety of
forms, data collection techniques, storage and data search programs, and
generation models.
. • -Computers can provide control that is as good as, or more precise and.
rapid than, human control. The operation of automobile engines, the flight ■
control of aircraft and spacecraft, and the aiming and firing of weapons can
. be computerized to take account of more information and to respond much _

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more rapidly than a human operator could. However, there are also risks
that the information entered may contain errors and its speed of response
may exceed human ability to monitor or judge the output.
• • Information storage also involves issues of privacy and security. Computer-
managed information systems require means for ensuring that information
cannot be changed or lost accidentally.

> Health Technology - is concerned with reducing the exposure of humans to

conditions that threaten health, as well as with increasing the body's
resistance to such conditions and minimizing the harmful effects that do
occur.
• Sanitation measures include containment and disposal of garbage,
construction of sewers and sewage processing plants, purification of water
and milk supplies, quarantine of infectious patients, chemical reduction
of insect and microorganism populations (insecticides and antiseptics),
and suppression of the population of rats, flies, and mosquitoes that carry
microorganisms.
• Vaccination has been the most effective means of preventing early death
from disease. It is used to enhance the human body's natural defenses
against disease. - weakened or killed disease microorganisms injected
into the blood may arouse the body's immune system to create antibodies
that subsequently will incapacitate live microorganisms if they try to invade.
• The detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of disease are improved by
. different kinds of technology. A look inside the body has been provided
. by imaging devices that use slender probes to supply visible light or (from ■
outside the body) magnetic fields, infrared radiation; sound waves, x rays,
or nuclear radiation.
• • Techniques for mapping the location of genes on chromosomes make
it possible to detect disease-related genes in children or In prospective
parents ' ’

D r. Lecicia V. C atris
 G eneral E d u catio n

• The modern treatment of many, diseases also is improved by science-

based technologies. Knowledge of chemistry, for example, has improved
our understanding of how drugs and naturally occurring body chemicals
work, how to synthesize them in large quantities, and how to supply the
body with the proper dosage.
• Substances have been identified that are most damaging to certain kinds
of cancer cells. Knowledge of the biological effects of finely controlled
beams of light, ultrasound, x rays, and nuclear radiation (all at much greater
intensities than are used for imaging) has led to technological alternatives
to scalpels and cauterization.
• Tissue/ organ transplants make it possible to replace some body parts
and to implant devices for electrically pacing the heart, sensing internal
conditions, or slowly dispensing drugs at optimal times.
• Improved medical technologies raise ethical and economic issues. The
combined results of improved technology in public health, medicine, and
agriculture have increased human longevity and population size thus
increasing the challenge of providing all humans with adequate food,
shelter, health care, and employment, and it places ever more strain on the
environment.
• The developing technology of diagnosing, monitoring, and treating
diseases and malfunctions increases society’s ability to keep people
living when they otherwise would have been unable to sustain their lives
themselves. ‘

D r. L c tic ia V. C a tris