Basic Electrical Technology
LECTURE **
DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 1
What is an Electric Circuit?
Definition:
“An interconnection of simple electrical devices with at least one closed path in which current may flow”
• Consists of a source of electrical energy; elements that either transform, dissipate, or store this energy;
connecting wires.
• To prevent power overload, circuits often include fuse or circuit breaker.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 2
Circuit Elements
• Active Elements: Voltage & Current Sources
Active & Passive • Passive Elements: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
• Linear: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
Linear & Non-linear Elements • Nonlinear: Diode, LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), Thermistor, transistor
• Unilateral: Diode, Transistor
Unilateral & Bilateral Elements • Bilateral (same property in both the directions): Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
Lumped & Distributed • Lumped elements are simplified version of distributed elements
Our study is limited to lumped linear bilateral circuit elements
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 3
Active Elements - Sources
Voltage Source VL
Ideal Voltage Source (DC) VL = VS
▪ Ideal Vs
o Maintains constant voltage irrespective of
+-
connected load
Vs
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 = 𝟎
IL
▪ Practical
o Terminal voltage changes based on the
Practical Voltage Source VL
connected load
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 ≠ 𝟎 Vs Rs
+- VL = VS – IL RS
IL
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 4
Active Elements - Sources
Current Source
Ideal Current Source (DC) IL
IL = IS
▪ Ideal
o Maintains constant current irrespective of the load
connected
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 = ∞ Is
VL
▪ Practical
o Output current changes based on the connected
Practical Current Source IL
load
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 < ∞
Is Rs IL = IS – VL /RS
VL
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 5
Source Transformation (A Network Reduction Technique)
Practical Voltage Source can be converted to Practical Current Source
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 6
Source Transformation
Practical Voltage Source Practical Current Source
+a
R +a
+ RL Is R RL
Vs -
-b 𝐕𝐬 -b
𝐈𝐬 =
𝐑
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 7
Source Transformation
Practical Voltage Source Practical Current Source
+a +a
R
+ RL Is R RL
Vs -
-b -b
𝐕𝐬 = 𝐑 × 𝐈𝐬
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 8
Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3
Find current in 6 KΩ resistor by converting current source to a voltage source.
Ans: 5 mA
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 9
Illustration 2 CO1, BTL3
The value of voltage ‘V’ is:
Ans: - 6.6 Volts
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 10
Illustration 3 CO1, BTL3
Reduce the following circuit to a current source in parallel with a resistor across the
terminals A & B.
Ans. 1.33 A (from B to A) in parallel with 1.2 Ω
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Illustration 4 CO1, BTL3
Determine current i1 through 5 Ω resistor by source transformation.
Ans: 1.143 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 12
Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL3
Find V0 using source transformation.
Ans: 20 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 13
Homework 1 CO1, BTL3
Solve using source transformation.
(Final reduction should be into a single voltage source in series with a resistance)
Ans: 1.143 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 14
Basic Electrical Technology
L EC T UR E **
• AC T I V E & PA SSI VE E L E M ENTS
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 15
Resistor
Energy Consuming Element
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 16
Resistor
▪ Passive electric device that dissipates energy
▪ Resistance: Property that opposes the flow of current
o Symbol: R
o Unit: Ohms (Ω)
o Power Consumed = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
▪ Conductance
o Reciprocal of resistance
o Symbol: G
o Unit – Siemens (S)
▪ Resistivity or Specific Resistance
𝝆𝒍
o R= 𝝆 = resistivity l = length A = cross sectional area Unit: Ohm-meter
𝑨
o The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material
o It is temperature dependent
o The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity, denoted by σ
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 17
Effect of Temperature on Resistance
Metallic conductors If temperature is increased resistance Positive temperature
(Example: Cu, Al) increases coefficient of resistance
Electrolytes, insulators (Example: glass, Resistance decreases with the increase Negative temperature
mica, rubber), and semiconductors in temperature coefficient of resistance
• At temperature T1, resistance is R1
• Temperature is increased from T1 to T2, resistance becomes R2
𝑅2 −𝑅1
• Then, α =
𝑅1 𝑇2 −𝑇1
• The constant α is known as temperature coefficient of resistance
• Unit: 1 / oC
• Defined as increase in resistance per unit original resistance per unit rise in temperature
• Resistivity of metallic conductors also increases with the rise in temperature and vice-versa
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 18
Effect of Temperature on Resistance
Typical Values of Electrical Resistivity (In Ohm-Meters)
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance / 0C (at 200 C)
at 20oC
Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8 Aluminium 0.00429
Copper 1.7 x 10-8 Copper 0.00386
Gold 2.4 x 10-8 Gold 0.0034
Carbon (Graphite) 1 x 10-5 Carbon (Graphite) – 0 .0005
Iron 1.0 x 10-7 Iron 0.00651
Nickel 7 x 10-8 Nickel 0.00641
Silicon 6.4 x 102 Silicon – 0.07
Quartz 7 x 1017 Quartz
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 19
Resistor Value Determination
Ohm value and tolerance based on resistor color codes
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 20
Resistors
Series connection of Resistors Parallel connection of Resistors
I1
R 1
R1 R2 R3
V1 V2 V3 I2
R 2
I
I
V I3
R 3
I I
V
• Current (I) in the all the resistors remains same
• Voltage (V) is same
• V = V1 + V2 + V3
• I = I1 + I2 + I3
• R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3
1 1 1 1
• = + +
Req R1 R2 R3
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 21
Resistors – Voltage and Current Division
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 22
Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3
Find voltage V1 and V2 as marked in the given circuit using voltage division rule.
Ans: 8.333 V and 1.667 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 23
Illustration 2 CO1, BTL3
Find voltage V5 as marked in the given circuit using voltage division rule.
Ans: 1.667 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 24
Illustration 3 CO1, BTL3
Find current Ix as marked in the given circuit using current division rule.
Ans: 4 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 25
Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL3
Use voltage division to find vx in the circuit
Ans: 2 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 26
Self-Practice 2 CO1, BTL3
Use current division to find ix in the circuit
Ans: 2 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 27
Source: Delivering or absorbing power?
▪ A battery is discharging (delivering power/energy) if,
o Current coming out from positive (+) terminal
▪ A battery is charging (absorbing power/energy) if,
o Current flowing into positive (+) terminal
▪ When current flows through a resistor,
o Power is dissipated
10 V battery is discharging
5 V battery is charging
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 28
Homework 1 CO1, BTL3
Find the equivalent resistance of the networks across terminals A & B.
Ans: 2.5 Ω
Ans: 2 Ω
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 29
Basic Electrical Technology
LECTURE **
DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS – PASSIVE ELEMENTS: L AND C
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 30
Inductor
Energy Storage Element
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 31
Inductor
• Passive electric device that stores energy in its magnetic field when current flows through it.
Inductance (also known as Self-Inductance, Unit: Henry or H)
- The property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
- This property is due to the self-induced emf in the coil itself by the changing current.
- Self-inductance does not prevent the current from changing, it serves only to delay the change.
dϕ dϕ di di
e= −N = −N ∙ = −L
dt di dt dt
dϕ
L=N
di
- The greater the self-induced emf, the greater the self-inductance of the coil and hence larger is the opposition to
the changing current.
- Inductance of the coil depends upon: Shape and number of turns, relative permeability (μr ) of the material
surrounding the coil, and the speed at which the magnetic field changes
𝐝𝐢 𝐍𝟐 𝐍 𝟐 𝛍𝟎 𝛍𝐫 𝐀
(i) 𝐞 = 𝐋 (ii) N ϕ = L I (iii) L = =
𝐝𝐭 𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐥
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 32
Inductor
Types of Inductors
Air-core inductor (fixed inductor) - Linear B-H curve, so L is the same no matter what current is in the
coil.
- Since 𝛍𝐫 of air is 1, the values of L obtained are very low
Iron-core inductor (variable inductor) - Ferromagnetic core
- Provides much higher value of L (as 𝛍𝐫 of ferromagnetic material is very
large)
- B-H curve is not linear, so inductance will vary with current.
Practical Inductor - All inductors are coil that have some winding resistance.
Practical Inductor
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 33
Inductor
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 34
Energy Stored in an Inductor
▪ Instantaneous power,
𝐝𝐢
𝐩 = 𝐯𝐋 . 𝐢 = 𝐋 𝐢
𝐝𝐭
▪ Energy absorbed in ‘𝐝𝐭’ time is
𝐝𝐰 = 𝐋 𝐢 𝐝𝐢
▪ Energy absorbed by the magnetic field when current increases from 𝟎 to 𝐈 amperes, is
𝐈 𝟏
𝐖 = 𝟐 𝐈 𝐋 = 𝐢𝐝 𝐢 𝐋 𝟎
𝟐
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 35
Inductance and Saturation Current
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 36
Equivalent Inductance
Inductors in series
L
1 L
2 L
3
𝐋𝐞𝐪 = 𝐋𝟏 + 𝐋𝟐 + … … + 𝐋𝐧
L1
Inductors in Parallel L2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 L3
= + + …….+
𝐋𝐞𝐪 𝐋𝟏 𝐋𝟐 𝐋𝐧
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 37
Capacitor
Energy Storing Element
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 38
Capacitors
▪ Passive electric device that stores energy in the electric field between a
pair of closely spaced conductors
▪ Capacitance: Property which opposes the rate of change of voltage
o Symbol: C
o Unit: Farad (F)
▪ The capacitive current is proportional to the rate of change of voltage across
it
𝐝𝐯𝐜
𝐢𝐜 = 𝐂
𝐝𝐭
▪ Charge stored in a capacitor whose plates are maintained at constant voltage:
𝐐 = 𝐂𝐕
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 39
Terminologies
▪ Electric field strength,
𝐕
𝐄 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬/𝐦
𝐝
▪ Electric flux density,
𝐐
𝐃= 𝐂/𝐦𝟐
𝐀
▪ Permittivity of free space,
𝛆𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐅/𝐦
▪ Relative permittivity, 𝛆𝐫
▪ Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝐫 𝐀
𝐂=
𝐝
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 40
Equivalent Capacitance
Capacitors in Series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ……+
𝐂𝐞𝐪 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐂𝐧
Capacitors in Parallel
𝐂𝐞𝐪 = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 + … . . + 𝐂𝐧
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 41
Energy stored in a Capacitor
▪ Instantaneous power
𝐝𝐯𝐜
𝐩 = 𝐯𝐜 × 𝐢 = 𝐂 𝐯𝐜
𝐝𝐭
▪ Energy supplied during ‘𝐝𝐭’ time is:
𝐝𝐰 = 𝐂 𝐯𝐜 𝐝𝐯𝐜
▪ Energy stored in the electric field when potential rises from 𝟎 to 𝐕 volts is,
𝐕 𝟏
𝐖 = 𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐮𝐨𝐉 𝟐 𝐕𝐂 = 𝐜𝐯𝐝 𝐜𝐯 𝐂 𝟎
𝟐
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 42
Types of Capacitors and their Applications
Electrolytic Capacitor
- Used when large capacitor values are required
- Used generally in the DC power supply circuit
- Typical values ranges from 1 μF up to 47,000 μF
Mica Capacitor
- Mica is the dielectric material
- A stable, reliable, low loss capacitor of small value
- Used in high-frequency applications
- Typical values: under 100 nF
Paper Capacitor
- Typical values: Ranges from 0.001 to 2 μF
- Used in electronic noise filtering, signal processing applications, etc.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 43
Types of Capacitors and their Applications
Film Capacitor
- Thin plastic is used as dielectric material
- It is heat resistant and used in aerospace and military technology
- Typical values: ranging from 1 nF to 30 µF
Ceramic Capacitor
- Ceramic is used as dielectric material
- Applications: Power circuit breakers, induction furnaces,
also printed circuit boards in electronics
- Typical values: ranging from 1 nF to 1 µF
Non-Polarized Capacitor
- It can be of two types: plastic foil or electrolytic.
- Used in AC applications with signal or power supply
- Typical values ranges from 1 μF up to 47,000 μF
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 44
Types of Capacitors and their Applications
Ultracapacitor (Also known as Supercapacitor or Electrochemical Capacitor)
- Store energy electrostatically
- Much higher energy storage density (high-capacity capacitor) than a normal capacitor
- Can release energy much quicker than the battery and can be used many times over without degradation
- Possess high energy density, short charging cycle, and a wide range of operating temperatures
- Applications: Ranges from large-scale energy storage to small portable/wearable watches
- Has the potential to replace or augment battery and fuel cell systems in many areas of technology
- Rated in Farads - typically be found in the 100 F to 500 F range (individual cells)
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 45
Capacitor Vs Supercapacitor Vs Battery
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 46
Exercise 1 CO1, BTL3
The following voltage is applied to a capacitor of 50 μF. Determine the current for 0 – 1 ms duration.
A) -5A
B) 5 mA
C) 5A
D) 1A
dVc
Hint: ic = C
dt
Ans: 5 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 47
Exercise 2 CO1, BTL3
A 100 mH inductor is supplied with a voltage of 𝐯 𝐭 = 𝟐𝟓 𝐞−𝟓𝐭 𝐕. Determine the inductor current.
1 t
Hint: iL = 0 v dt
L
Ans: - 50 e –5t A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 48
Star - Delta and Delta - Star Transformation
Y − Δ and Δ − Y
A N E TWORK R E DU C TI ON T ECHN IQU E
LEC T UR E **
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 49
Star (Υ) & Delta (Δ) Connections
A
A
Ra
Rca Rab
Rc Rb Rbc
C B
C B
Star (Υ) Connection Delta (Δ) Connection
Link for the formula derivation:
https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108105053/pdf/L-06(GDR)(ET)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 50
Delta (Δ) – Star (Υ) Transformation
A Δ to Υ Transformation A
Rca Rab Ra
Rc Rb
B
𝐑 𝐚𝐛 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 B
C 𝐑𝐚 = = C
Rbc 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 + 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 σ 𝐑∆
𝐑 𝐛𝐜 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 𝐑 𝐚𝐛
𝐑𝐛 = =
𝐑 𝐚𝐛 + 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 σ 𝐑∆
𝐑 𝐜𝐚 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 𝐑 𝐛𝐜
𝐑𝐜 = =
𝐑 𝐚𝐛 + 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 σ 𝐑∆
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 51
Star (Υ) - Delta (Δ) Transformation
Υ to Δ Transformation A
A
Rca Rab
Ra
Rc Rb
C B
B 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 + 𝐑𝐜𝐑𝐚 Rbc
C 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 = 𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + =
𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐜
𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 + 𝐑𝐜𝐑𝐚
𝐑 𝐛𝐜 = 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜 + =
𝐑𝐚 𝐑𝐚
𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 + 𝐑𝐜𝐑𝐚
𝐑 𝐜𝐚 = 𝐑 𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐚 + =
𝐑𝐛 𝐑𝐛
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 52
Balanced Star (Υ) –Delta (Δ)
A A
Ra Rca Rab
Rc Rb
C B
C B
Rbc
Balanced Υ Balanced Δ
𝐑𝐘 = 𝐑𝐚 = 𝐑𝐛 = 𝐑𝐜 𝐑 ∆ = 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 = 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 = 𝐑 𝐜𝐚
Converting Δ network into Υ and vice-versa often
𝐑∆ = 3 𝐑𝐘 simplifies the network and makes it possible to
apply series-parallel circuit techniques
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 53
Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3
Determine P10 Ω Starting Step:
Approach 1: E as Y point and Y to ∆ of RB, RC, RD
Self-Practice Approaches:
Approach 2: ∆ to Y of B-E-C setup
Approach 3: ∆ to Y of D-E-C setup
Approach 4: B as Y point and Y to ∆ of R A, RE, RC
Approach 5: D as Y point and Y to ∆ of R A, RE, RC
Ans: P5Ω = 2.71845 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 54
Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL3
Determine the source voltage Vs that delivers the 2 A in the circuit as shown
Ans: VS = 6.2 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 55
Self-Practice 2 CO1, BTL3
Determine equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B.
Ans: 2.21 Ω
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 56
Self-Practice 3 CO1, BTL3
Determine equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B.
Ans: 10 Ω
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Mesh Current Analysis
A NETWORK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
LECTURE **
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 58
Introduction
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
o In any closed circuit or mesh, the
Algebraic sum of electromotive forces (emf) + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0
Loop
o Any closed path of electrical network
o Inside loops: a-b-g-a, b-c-g-b & a-b-c-a
o Outside loops: a-c-g-a & a-b-c-g-a
Mesh
o A loop which do not contain any other loop inside it.
Same as inside loops above.
o a-b-g-a, b-c-g-b & a-b-c-a
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 59
Mesh Current Analysis Method
Also known as Maxwell’s Mesh Current Method
Steps
o Transform all the current sources present in the circuit to voltage sources
o Mark different currents in all the independent meshes of the given network
o Write KVL equations for these independent meshes
o Solve for the currents
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 60
Mesh Current Analysis – Matrix Equivalent
(R 2 + R 4 ) − (R 4 ) −(R 2 ) I1 (V1 − V3 )
−(R 4 ) (R 3 + R 4 ) −(R 3 ) I2 = −V2
−(R 2 ) −(R 3 ) (R 1 + R 2 + R 3 ) I3 V3
Resistance matrix ∙ The vector of mesh currents
=
(The vector of the sum of source voltages around each mesh)
▪ Matrices can be formed by inspection and can be solved by Cramer's rule
▪ All self-resistances will always be positive and all mutual-resistances will always be negative
▪ No circuit branch can carry more than two currents
▪ Resistance matrix is symmetric
▪ Convert all practical current sources to equivalent voltage sources
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 61
Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3
a) Write matrix form of network equation and solve for currents by Cramer’s rule.
b) Find the power dissipated in the 10 Ω resistor.
c) Self Practice: Write KVL equations for independent meshes and solve for currents to find P10 Ω
Case 1: No requirement of source conversion
Ans: 1000 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 62
Illustration 2
Determine the power consumed by the 2 Ω resistor using mesh current analysis.
Case 2: Source conversion is required and can be done
Ans: 0.3283 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 63
Illustration 3 CO1, BTL4
Determine VXY and P6A
Case 3 A: When current source is present in the perimeter of any individual mesh
Ans: VXY = 1 V, P6A = 138 W (Supplied)
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 64
Illustration 4 (Supermesh) CO1, BTL4
Determine the power supplied by the 7 V and 7 A current source.
Case 3 B: When current source is present in the middle of any individual mesh
Ans: P7V = 63 W (supplied), P7A = 94.5 W (supplied)
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 65
Illustration 5 CO1, BTL3
Realize the network defined by mesh current equation
Case 4: Network realization from matrix form of equations.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 66
Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL4
Find the power supplied by the 5 A current source. Also, determine the voltage between
the points M & N.
30 4V
N
20 40
M
50
1V 5A
2V
10
Ans: P5 A = 556.5 W and VMN = 55.8 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 67
Self-Practice 2 CO1, BTL3
P3Ω ?
Ans: 4.889 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 68
Self-Practice 3 CO1, BTL3
Realize the network defined by mesh current equation
𝟕 −𝟏 −𝟏 𝒊𝟏 𝟏𝟎
−𝟏 𝟔 −𝟐 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟓
−𝟏 −𝟐 𝟒 𝒊𝟑 𝟎
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 69
Node Voltage Analysis
A NETWORK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
LECTURE: **
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 70
Introduction
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
o At any node (or junction) in a circuit, the algebraic
sum of currents entering and leaving the node at
any instant of time must be equal to zero
o At any junction or node
Incoming currents = Outgoing current
Node
o A point in an electric circuit where 2 or more
elements are connected
Branch
o A conducting path/connection between two
adjoining nodes/junction points in a circuit
containing circuit elements.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 71
Node Voltage Analysis Method
o Also known as Nodal Analysis or Node to Datum Analysis
o Convert all the practical voltage sources to current sources
o Identify nodes in the circuit
o One of the nodes is taken as the reference (datum) node
o Assign a voltage to each of the remaining nodes
o Write KCL equations for all the nodes (excluding the
reference node)
o Solve for voltages
o Advantage: Minimum number of equations need to be
written to determine the unknown quantities.
o Particularly suitable for networks having many parallel
circuits with common ground connected such as electronic
circuits.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 72
Illustration 1: Nodal Analysis - Matrix Equivalent
V1 V −V V −V 11 1 1
KCL at Node 1: + 1 2+ 1 3 − 28 = 0 or V1 − V2 − V3 = 28 𝟏
2 2 10 10 2 10
KCL at Node 2:
V2 V −V
+ 2 1+ 2 3
V −V
=0 or −
1
V1 +
17
V2 −
1
V3 = 0 𝐆=
5 2 1 2 10 1 𝐑
V3 −V1 V −V V 1 1 27
KCL at Node 3: + 3 2+ 3 +2=0 or − V1 − V2 + V3 = −2
10 1 4 10 1 20
11 1 1
− − Case 1: No
10 2 10 𝑉1 28
1 17 1
𝑉2 = requirement
− − 0
2 10 1 𝑉3 −2 of source
1 1 27
− − conversion
10 1 20
1 1 1 1 1
+ + − −
2 2 10 2 10
1 1 1 1 1 𝑉1 28
− + + − 𝑉2 = 0
2 2 1 5 1 𝑉3 −2 V1 = 36 V
1 1 1 1 1 V2 = 20 V
− − + +
10 1 4 1 10 V2 = 16 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 73
Nodal Analysis - Matrix Equivalent
G11 G12 G13 V1 I1
G21 G22 G23 V2 = I2
G31 G32 G33 V3 I3
(Conductance or Admittance matrix) * (Vector of node voltages)
= (Vector of source currents entering each node)
• Conductance matrix is symmetric
• Convert all practical voltage sources to equivalent current sources
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 74
Illustration 2
Using nodal analysis find P10 Ω
Case 2: Source conversion is required and can be done
Ans: 1000 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 75
Illustration 3 (Supernode)
Find nodal voltages V1 and V2
Case 3: When source conversion is not possible.
SUPERNODE: It is the presence of a voltage source between two nodes
Ans: V1 = 2/3 V and V2 = - 1/3 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 76
Illustration 4
Determine the power supplied by the two sources using node voltage method.
Ans:
V1 = 10 V, V2 = 9.2 V, V3 = 4.2 V
P10 V = 18.5 W (supplied), P5 V = 3.75 W (supplied)
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 77
Illustration 5
Realize the network defined by node voltage equation
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 78
Self-Practice 1
Using nodal analysis find ix and iy
Ans:
ix= 1.304 A, iy = - 2.478 A
Node voltages: 1.304 V and 3.478 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 79
Self-Practice 2
Determine the power consumed by 5 Ω resistor by node voltage analysis. All resistances
are in Ohms.
Ans: P 5 Ω = 2.8125 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 80
Network Theorems
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
LEC T UR E * *
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 81
Terminologies Used
➢ Linear element: V-I characteristics are linear. Example: R, L, and C
➢ Non-linear element: V-I characteristics are non-linear. Example: Diode
➢ Bi-lateral element: Property does not change with the direction of operation. Example: R, L, and C
➢ Unilateral element: Property changes with the direction of operation. Example: Diode
➢ Linear Circuit: Circuit with linear elements only.
➢ Bi-lateral circuit: Circuit with bi-lateral elements only.
➢ Response: The output of the network. Example: Currents and voltages at various points in a circuit
➢ Excitation: The independent sources in the circuit. Example: Current and voltage sources
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 82
Superposition Theorem
• In any linear, bi-lateral network, the total response is the sum of partial responses.
• In any linear, bilateral, resistive network, with more than one generator (current sources and
voltage sources), the current through or voltage across any element of the circuit is the algebraic
sum of individual currents or voltages caused by the separate independent sources acting alone,
with all other independent sources being replaced by their internal resistances (ideal voltage
sources being replaced by a short circuit and ideal current sources being replaced by open
circuit).
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 83
Procedure to Apply Superposition Theorem
1. Draw the circuit with passive elements only.
2. Place one of the sources in its position.
3. Replace the other sources with their internal resistances.
a. Ideal voltage source by a short circuit
b. Ideal current source by an open circuit
4. Find the response using one of the methods, i.e., network reduction, mesh current, node voltage
methods, star-delta, etc.
5. Repeat the procedure for all the sources.
6. Add the responses due to individual sources.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 84
Illustration 1
Apply the Superposition theorem to calculate the amount of current through the load resistor.
Self-Practice: Verify the result using 1) Mesh analysis, and 2) Nodal analysis
Ans: 6.623 mA
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 85
Illustration 2
In the circuit, find IR3 using the Superposition method.
Self-Practice: Verify the result using Nodal analysis
Ans:
Due to source VS: 2 mA
Due to source IS1: 11 mA
Due to source IS2: - 4 mA
Total: 9 mA
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 86
Illustration 3
Find VL in the circuit using the Superposition principle.
Answer:
Due to source 2 V: 1 V
Due to source 5 A: - 1.25 V
Due to source 5.33 A: 1.3325 V
Total: 1.0825 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 87
Limitations of superposition Theorem
• Doesn’t work for power computation which involves
o product of voltage and current,
o the square of current or
o the square of the voltage
which are non-linear mathematical operations
• The superposition principle can be used to find the power dissipated in a resistor provided
computation of power is performed after finding the actual current through or voltage across the
resistor. It is not permissible to find the power by adding all the power dissipation computed when
each source is acting along.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 88
Self-Practice 1
Use Superposition theorem to calculate V3Ω
Ans: 18 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 89
Self-Practice 2
Applying Superposition principle, find VR2
Answer:
Due to source VS1: 50 V
Due to source VS2: 5 V
Due to source IS: 18 V
Total: 73 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 90
Self-Practice 3
Solve Illustration 2 of node voltage analysis (Illustration 1 of mesh current analysis) using
Superposition principle.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 91
Network Theorems
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
LEC T UR E * *
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 92
Why Thevenin's Theorem
• In many applications, a network may contain a variable
component or element while other elements in the circuit
are kept constant.
• If the solution for current or voltage or power in any
component of the network is desired, in such cases the
whole circuit need to be analyzed each time with the change
in component value.
• In order to avoid such repeated computation, it is desirable
to introduce a method that will not have to be repeated for
each value of the variable component.
• For the circuit shown,
• Mesh current method needs 3 equations to be solved
• Node voltage method requires 2 equations to be solved
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 93
Definition of Thevenin’s Theorem
• Any circuit consisting of linear, bilateral resistances and
sources (current sources and voltage sources) can be
replaced by a single voltage source (called Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage, V Th) in series with one resistance (called
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, RTh) across the terminals
of interest.
• Thevenin’s equivalent voltage, V Th, is the open-circuit voltage
across the terminals of interest.
• Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, RTh, is the net resistance
across the terminals of interest with all sources being replaced
by their internal resistances (ideal voltage sources should be
short-circuited and ideal current sources should be open-
circuited).
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 94
Procedure of Thevenin’s Theorem
Suppose: Find IL through RL
Step 1: Disconnect load resistance, RL
o Remove the load
o Keep the terminals open-circuited as shown below.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 95
Procedure of Thevenin’s Theorem
Step 2: Find Thevenin’s voltage, V Th
• Apply mesh current or node voltage or any network
reduction technique
• Find the voltage across the open-circuited terminals.
Step 3: Find Thevenin’s resistance, RTh
• Keep the load terminals open.
• Replace all the sources with their internal resistances.
• Ideal voltage sources should be short-circuited (just replace them with plain wire)
• Ideal current sources should be open-circuited (just remove them)
• Find the equivalent resistance across open-circuited load terminals.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 96
Illustration 1
Using Thevenin’s theorem find the power dissipated in 10 Ω resistor.
Ans: V TH = 141.797 V, RTh = 4.179 Ω, P10Ω = 1000 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 97
Illustration 2
Determine current I0 using Thevenin’s theorem.
Ans: V TH = - 30.8022 V, RTh = 6.6 Ω , I0 = - 2.44 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 98
Illustration 3
Determine the current IL through the resistor RL = 6 Ω using Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Ans: VTH = 21 V, RTh = 4 Ω , IL = 2.1 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 99
Self-Practice 1
Determine the current through the resistor RL = R2 = 1 Ω using Thevenin’s theorem.
Ans: V TH = 1 V, RTh = 1.555 Ω , IL = 0.39 A
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 100
Network Theorems
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
LEC T UR E: * *
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 101
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• In any linear, bilateral dc circuit, maximum power will be transferred from a source to load
when the load resistance is made equal to the internal resistance of the supply (source) as
viewed from the load terminals with load removed and all emf sources replaced by their
internal resistances.
OR
• The maximum power is obtained from a linear circuit at a given pair of terminals when
terminals are loaded by the Thevenin’s resistance (RTh) of the circuit.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 102
Proof
Consider the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of a network
VTh
IL =
RTh +RL
2
VTh
PL = RL
RTh +RL
• For a given source generated voltage V Th and RTh are constant
• Therefore, power delivered to load RL depends upon RL
dP
RTh
For PL to be maximum, L =0 A
dRL
which yields, 𝐑 𝐋 = 𝐑 𝐓𝐡 IL
Load resistance = Internal resistance of source VTh RL
Maximum Power,
2
VTh V2Th B
PL−max = R Th =
RTh +RTh 4RTh
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 103
Illustration 1
Obtain maximum amount of power transfer in R from the source.
Ans: VTh = 14.706 V, RTh = 1.765 Ω, PMax = 30.637 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 104
Illustration 2
Determine the maximum power transfer to R in the circuit shown.
Ans: V Th = – 45 V, RTh = 7.667 Ω, PMax = 66.03 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 105
Illustration 3
What percent of maximum power (possible maximum power) is delivered to RL in the figure when
RL = 2RTh?
Ans: 88.89 % of Pmax
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 106
Note
• This theorem states how to choose (so as to maximize power transfer) the load
resistance, once the source resistance is given, not the opposite.
• It does not say how to choose the source resistance, once the load resistance is given.
• Given a certain load resistance, the source resistance that maximizes the power transfer
is always zero, regardless of the value of the load resistance.
• Applications: Electronics and communication networks – the goal is either to receive or
transmit maximum power (though at reduced efficiency). Here, the power involved is only
a few milliwatts or microwatts.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 107
Self-Practice 1
The variable resistor R in the figure below is adjusted until it absorbs the maximum power from
the circuit.
(a) Calculate the value of R for maximum power.
(b) Determine the maximum power absorbed by R.
Ans:
R = 25 Ω
V2Th 282
Pmax = = = 7.84 W
4RL 4×25
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 108
Self-Practice 2
Determine the value of load resistance to be connected across terminals A & B such that
maximum power is transferred to the load. Also find the maximum power.
Ans: RL= 4 Ω, V Th= 3.333 V, PMax= 0.6943 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 109
Self-Practice 3
Find the maximum power in RL which is variable in the circuit.
Ans: V Th = 8 V, RL= RTh= 49 Ω, PMax = 0.3265 W
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 110
Basic Electrical Technology
DC TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 111
DC Transient Analysis
TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR OF R –L CI RCUIT
LEC T UR E * *
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 112
Closing and Breaking an Inductive Circuit
• Consider an inductive circuit shown.
• When the switch is closed, the current increases gradually and takes some time
to reach the final value.
• Suppose at any instant, the current is i and is increasing at the rate of di/dt
• Then,
𝐝𝐢
𝐕 = 𝐯𝐑 + 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐢𝐑 + 𝐋
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐢
• After some time di/dt becomes zero and so does the self-induced emf 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐋 𝐝𝐭
• At this stage, the current attains the final fixed value (maximum) I given by:
𝐕
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑 + 𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝐈 =
𝐑
• Thus, when a dc circuit containing inductance is switched on, the current takes some time to reach the final value,
𝐕
𝐈=
𝐑
• Similarly, when an inductive circuit is opened, the current does not jump to zero but falls gradually.
• In either case, the delay in change depends upon the values of L and R.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 113
Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
• Consider an inductive circuit shown.
𝐕
• When the switch is closed, the current rises from zero to final value, 𝐈 = 𝐑 in
small time t.
• Suppose at any instant, the current is i and is increasing at the rate of di/dt
• Then,
di
V = vR + vL = iR + L
dt
di di dt
V − iR = L or =
dt V − iR L
−R R
di = − dt
V − iR L
Integrating both sides, we get,
R
log e V − iR = − t + K
L
To find K, we have i = 0 at t = 0, which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 114
Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
R
Therefore, log e V − iR = − L t + log e V
V − iR R V − iR −Rt
log e = − t or = e ൗL
V L V
𝐕 −𝐑𝐭 −𝐑𝐭ൗ
𝐢= 𝟏 − 𝐞 ൗ𝐋 𝐨𝐫 𝐢 = 𝐈 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝐋
𝐑
−𝐑𝐭ൗ
Voltage across the inductance: 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐕 𝐞 𝐋
Thus, the rise of current follows an exponential law.
V
• Theoretically, the current will reach its final value I = R in an infinite time. However,
practically it reaches this value in a short time.
• Initial rate of rise of current is:
di
(the instant the switch is closed, i = 0 and hence V = L dt)
𝐝𝐢 𝐕
= A/s
𝐝𝐭 𝐋
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 115
Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
𝐋
Time Constant (𝛕) = seconds
𝐑
𝐋
- The quantity 𝐑 is called the time constant of the circuit and affects the rise of current in the circuit.
- It has the dimensions of time so that the exponent of e (i.e., −RtΤL ) is a number.
L −𝐑𝐭ൗ
- If time interval, t = τ or , then, 𝐢 = 𝐈 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐 𝐈
R
- Hence, time constant can be defined as the time required for the current to reach 0.632 (or 63.2%) of its final
steady state value.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 116
Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
• Time constant can also be defined as the time taken by the current through the inductor to reach its
final steady-state value, had the initial rate of rise been maintained constant.
𝐋
𝛕=
𝐑
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 117
Decay (Fall) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
• Consider an inductive circuit shown. When the switch is thrown to Position a, the
𝐕
current in the circuit starts rising and attains the final value 𝐈 = 𝐑 in small time t
as discussed previously.
• If now switch is thrown to Position b, the current in R-L circuit does not cease
immediately but gradually reduces to zero.
• Suppose at any instant, the current is i and is decreasing at the rate of di/dt, then,
𝐝𝐢
𝟎 = 𝐯𝐑 + 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐢𝐑 + 𝐋
𝐝𝐭
𝑑𝑖 R
or = − t
𝑖 L
Integrating both sides, we get,
R
log e i = − t + K
L
𝐕
To find K, we have 𝐢 = 𝐈 (= 𝐑) at t = 0, which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐈
−R
Therefore, log e i = t + log e I
L
−𝐑𝐭ൗ −𝐑𝐭ൗ
𝐢=𝐈 𝐞 𝐋 Also, 𝐯𝐋 = −𝐕 𝐞 𝐋
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 118
Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit
𝐋
Time Constant (𝛕) = seconds
𝐑
𝐕
Time taken by the current to fall to 0.37 (or 37%) of its final steady value 𝐈 = 𝐑 while decaying.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 119
Illustration 1
In the given network, initially the switch S was at position 1 and then shifted to position 2 at t = 15 ms.
a) Determine the inductor current i (t) and the voltage across inductor vL (t) at t = 12 ms and t = 20 ms
b) Determine the time taken by inductor current to reach the value 2.5 A
c) Sketch the inductor current i (t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 25 ms Ans: (a) 12 ms: i (t) = 4.3233 A, VL(t) = 27.067 V
15 ms: i (t) = 4.5896 A, VL(t) = 16.417 V
20 ms: i (t) = 3.02563 A, VL(t) = - 10.82275 V
25 ms: i (t) = 1.9946 A
(b) t = 4.1588 ms (Rise)
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 120
Illustration 2
An R-L series circuit is designed for a steady current of 250 mA. A current of 120 mA flows in the circuit at
an instant 0.1 s after connecting the supply voltage. Calculate i) the time constant of the circuit ii) the time
from closing the circuit at which the circuit current has reached 200 mA.
Ans: i) Time constant = 0.1529 s ii) t= 0.2461 s
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 121
Illustration 3
For the initially relaxed circuit shown, the switch is closed on to position S1 at time t = 0 and changed to
position S2 at time t = 0.5 ms. Obtain the equation for inductor current and sketch the transients for both
intervals.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 122
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 123
DC Transient Analysis
TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR OF R –C CI RCUIT
LEC T UR E * *
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 124
Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
• When the switch is closed, the capacitor starts charging up and a charging current flows in the circuit.
• The charging current is maximum at the instant of switching and decreases gradually as the voltage
across the capacitor increases.
• When the capacitor is charged to applied voltage V, the charging current becomes zero.
1. At switching instant
• The entire voltage V is dropped across R and the charging current is maximum
• Voltage across capacitor = 0
• Charge on capacitor = 0
𝐕
• Initial charging current, 𝐈𝐦 =
𝐑
2. At any instant
• After having closed the switch, the charging current starts decreasing and the voltage across the capacitor
gradually increases.
• Let at any instant during charging:
i = charging current v = pd across C q = charge on capacitor = Cv
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 125
Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
(a) Voltage across capacitor
According to KVL, V = v + iR
dv dq d(Cv) Cdv
V = v + CR i= = =
dt dt dt dt
dv dt
− =−
V−v RC
𝐭
Integrating both sides, 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕 − 𝐯 = − +𝐊
𝐑𝐂
Initial condition: At the instant of closing the switch, t = 0 and v = 0, which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕
t V−v t
Therefore, log e V − v = − + log e V or log e =−
RC V RC
𝐭
𝐯 = 𝐕 𝟏 − 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂
- This is the expression for variation of voltage across the capacitor w.r.t time.
𝐭
- As t increases, the term 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂 gets smaller and voltage (v) across capacitor gets larger
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 126
Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
(b) Charge on capacitor
q = charge at any time t Q = final charge
q Q
Therefore, 𝑣 = and 𝑉 =
C 𝐶
q Q t 𝐭
= 1 − e− ൗRC or 𝐪 = 𝐐 𝟏 − 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂
C C
(c) Charging Current
t
We have, V − v = iR and also V − v = Ve− ൗRC
t 𝐕 −𝐭ൗ 𝐭
Therefore, iR = Ve− ൗRC or 𝐢 = 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 or 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂
𝐑
(d) Rate of rise of voltage across capacitor
dv
We have, V − v = CR dt
dv
At the instant the switch is closed, v = 0, therefore, V = CR
dt
𝐝𝐯 𝐕
Hence initial rate of rise of voltage across capacitor is: = volts
𝐝𝐭 𝐂𝐑
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 127
Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
Time Constant (𝛕) = RC seconds
- The quantity RC is called the time constant of the circuit and affects the charging (or discharging) time.
- It has the dimensions of time so that the exponent of e (i.e., −tΤRC ) is a number.
−𝒕Τ
- If time interval, 𝐭 = 𝛕 𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐂 , then, 𝐯 = 𝐕 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐 𝐕
- Hence, time constant can be defined as the time required for the capacitor voltage to reach 0.632 (or
63.2 %) of its final steady state value, V
𝐭
- If time interval, 𝐭 = 𝛕 𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐂 , then, 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐞− Τ𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝐈𝐦
- Hence, time constant can be defined as the time required for the charging current to fall to 0.37 (or 37
%) of its initial maximum value, 𝐈𝐦
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 128
Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
Time Constant (𝛕) may also be defined as the time required for the capacitor voltage to rise to its final
steady-state value V if it continued rising at its initial rate (V/RC).
vc
ic
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 129
Discharging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
• Consider capacitor charged to a pd of V volts (through Position a of switch). When t=0 R
the switch is thrown to Position b, the voltage across the capacitor starts a
decreasing . b +
𝐕 V i C vc
• The discharge current rises instantaneously to a value of 𝐈𝐦 = and then decays
𝐑
gradually to zero.
• Let at any instant during discharging:
i = discharging current v = pd across C q = charge on capacitor = C v
dv dv d𝑡
By KVL, 0 = v + RC or =−
dt 𝑣 RC
t
Integrating both sides, we get log e v = − + K
RC
Initial condition: At the instant of closing the switch, t = 0 and v = V which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕
t 𝑣 t
Therefore, log e v = − + log e V or log e = −
RC 𝑉 RC
−𝐭ൗ −𝐭ൗ −𝐭ൗ
𝐯=𝐕 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 Similarly, 𝐪=𝐐 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 and 𝐢 = −𝐈𝐦 𝐞 𝐑𝐂
Negative sign indicates that the discharging current flows in the opposite direction of charging current.
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 130
Discharging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 131
Illustration 1
An 8 μF capacitor is connected in series with a 0.5 MΩ resistor, across a 200 V dc supply through a
switch. At t = 0 s, the switch is turned on. Calculate
i. Time constant of the circuit
ii. Initial charging current.
iii. Time taken for the potential difference across the capacitor to grow to 160 V.
iv. Current & potential difference across the capacitor 4.0 seconds after the switch is turned on.
Ans: (i) 4 s, (ii) 400 μA , (iii) 6.44 s (iv) 126.42 V & 147.15 μA
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 132
Illustration 2
For the circuit shown, the switch S is closed at t = 0 s. Determine how long will it take, after the
switch is closed, for the total current drawn from the supply to reach 25 mA.
Ans: t = 73.5 ms
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 133
Illustration 3
In the network shown below, the switch is closed to Position 1 at t = 0, and then moved to 2 after one
time constant, at t = 250 μs. Obtain the current for t > 0 and also sketch it.
40 e−4000t mA 0<t<τ
Ans: i = ൝
−105.28 e−4000(t−0.00025) mA t>τ
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 134