Electronic systems for sensors

Introduction to sensors
Cécile Ghouila-Houri / Abdelkrim Talbi

2021-2022
 Electronic systems for sensors 2

 Who sill you see in this course?

 Marc GOUEYGOU ([email protected])
 Cathy SION
 Hatem DAHMANI
 Geoffrey LEZIER
 Abdelkrim TALBI PPC course
 Cécile GHOUILA-HOURI “Physical principles of sensors”
 Electronic systems for sensors 3

Objectives of the lecture

1. To introduce the importance of Electronic Instrumentation

2. To introduce the characteristics of sensors
3. To introduce some physical principles of sensors

 User's point of view :

 Good choice of sensor for a concrete application
 Know how to use a sensor
 Designer’s point of view:
 Design and develop a sensor, an application
Outline 4

1. Introduction
2. Main characteristics of sensors
3. Physics of sensors
Outline 5

1. Introduction
2. Main characteristics of sensors
3. Physics of sensors
Introduction 6

Sensors are everywhere!

Introduction 7

Industrial example: sensors in cars

Introduction 8

Sensors: Economics & Market

Introduction 9

Sensors: Economics & Market

The industrial sectors most concerned by
the evolution of the sensor market: the
automotive, environmental and portable
electronics sectors.

The intelligent building industry:

$3.7 billion in 2020,
313 million in 2013 → 4% average
annual growth between 2013 and
2020.
 Introduction 10

Importance of metrology
 Knowing for better acting
Scientific laws
 Measurement can validate models
 For scientists, measuring is the way to test
a theory Industrial process
 Measurement can validate designs Meas. Action
 For engineers, measuring is the way to validate a design Industrialization
Decision
 Measurement systems and sensors are the basics of
Complex systems
information and communication science
 Measurement systems and sensors are the senses of
the computer
 Measuring also implies: knowing what you don’t know
Introduction 11

Structure of a measurement system

Introduction 12

Structure of a measurement system

Introduction 13

Structure of a measurement system

A/D convertors

PPC course!
Outline 14

1. Introduction
2. Main characteristics of sensors
3. Physics of sensors
 Main characteristics of sensors 15

Definitions
 What exactly is measuring?
 Measuring = determining the value of a quantity
 Quantity = property of a phenomenon or object that can be qualitatively distinguished and quantitatively
determined
 Length, time, mass, temperature, electrical resistance…
 Measurand: The physical quantity which is the object of the measurement and which is represented by
the symbol "m "
 The domains of evolution are:
 static → little or no change over time
 dynamic → continuous change over time
 Measurement : All the experimental operations which contribute to the knowledge in time of the
numerical value of the measurand
 Main characteristics of sensors 16

Sensor

 Device that transforms the physical quantity to be measured into a signal of electrical nature "s".
 The measurement of "s" must allow the knowledge as exact as possible of the measurand "m".

Mesurand Sensor Electrical signal

𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑚)

 The function f depends on several factors

 physical laws that govern the operation of the sensor
 construction, material, environment
 Main characteristics of sensors 17

Transducer
 A transducer is an internal part of a sensor that modifies a physical quantity (displacement, energy,...)
into a second physical quantity.

Transducer 1 Transducer 2

Example
Pressure Membrane Strain gage Electrical
voltage
 Main characteristics of sensors 18

Measurement uncertainty

 Every measurement y of a quantity x is subject to measurement uncertainty

 Many causes:
 random variations in the measurement value
 varying measurement conditions
 finite resolution / incorrect reading
 deviations in the transfer of the measurement system
 poorly defined definition of the quantity to be measured
 ...
 Main characteristics of sensors 19

Uncertainty vs error

 Measurement uncertainty ≠ measurement error

 Error: difference between measured value and the ‘true’ value
 Uncertainty: quantification of the doubt about the measurement
 Measurement uncertainty can be quantified by
 a standard deviation: “the mass is 100.02147 g with a standard deviation of 0.35 mg”
 a confidence interval: “the mass is (100.02147 ±0.00079) g, at a confidence level of 95%”
 Unknown measurement errors contribute to the measurement uncertainty
 Some measurement errors can be determined, by means of calibration, and be corrected for
afterwards.
 Main characteristics of sensors 20

Calibration

 Calibration makes a connection between

 Measurement value produced by a measurement instrument
 Corresponding values realized by standards
 Calibration procedure: comparison of an instrument with a (more
accurate) standard
 Calibration enables measurements which are traceable to
standards
 Through an unbroken chain of comparison
 With associated specified uncertainties!
 Main characteristics of sensors 21

Example: calibration of a platinum thermometer

 Platinum resistance thermometer
 Typical relation (transfer) 
 Calibration procedure:
 comparison to a more accurate
reference thermometer (the working
standard) at various calibration
temperatures
⇒list of measured temperatures and
resistance values with measurement uncertainty
 determination of the coefficients of a formula that relates measured resistance to temperature
⇒𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝑇𝐶𝑅 ∙ ∆𝑇)
 determination of the corresponding measurement uncertainty
 Next, when using the thermometer, this formula will be used to translate a measured resistance into
temperature
 Main characteristics of sensors 22

Transfer function

 Using the transfer function H, output signal (indication) y1can be translated back to a measurement
value x1
 Main characteristics of sensors 23

Sensitivity



 Main characteristics of sensors 24

Differential sensitivity


Main characteristics of sensors 25

Measurement errors due to deviations in the transfer

Main characteristics of sensors 26

Deviation in linear transfer

 Main characteristics of sensors 27

Linearity and non linearity

 A non-linear transfer will give measurement errors if the nominal transfer is assumed to be linear
 Linearity is expressed in %, it is the maximum relative error between the regression line and the
regression line and the real characteristic.
 Main characteristics of sensors 28

Response time and bandwidth

 Bandwidth
 cut-off frequency where the sensitivity has decreased by -3dB
 Response time
 measurand jump: the time needed for the sensor signal to arrive in a range of within 5% of the final value

Statics (f=0)

Dynamics (f>0)

 Bandwidth and response time are linked. For a linear system:

 Main characteristics of sensors 29

Resolution
 The resolution of a sensor is the smallest variation of the measurand
that the sensor is able to detect (not to be confused with precision)
 smallest change in x that causes a noticeable change in y
 Expressed in two ways:
 absolute: ∆x
 relative to the full scale: ∆x / xmax
often in bits:–2log (∆x / xmax)
 Example: 4½-digit display, 200V range
 ∆x = 0.01 V
 ∆x / xmax= 0.01 V / 199.99 V = 5⋅10-5
 in bits: –log 2(5⋅10-5) = 14.3 bits
 Main characteristics of sensors 30

Measurement range
 Measurement range :
 nominal range: nominal measurand range (normal operation)
 non-deterioration area: out of specs, no longer working, but not destroyed, absolute maximum ratings
 non-destructive range: permanent change of characteristics!

 /!\ the manufacturers do not systematically mention all these zones in the data sheets
Outline 31

1. Introduction
2. Main characteristics of sensors
3. Physics of sensors
 Physics of sensors 32

Deformation and displacement sensors Physics (PPC module) Vibration sensors

Active materials based sensors Thermal sensors

Resonant sensors
 Physics of sensors 33

Resistive sensors
 Resistance of a wire-shaped conductor:

 Piezo-resistivity
 C: Bridgman constant

Gage factor

 Thermo-resistive effect
𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝑇𝐶𝑅 ∙ ∆𝑇)

 …
 Physics of sensors 34

Capacitive sensors
 Parallel-plate capacitor

 Displacement sensors
 Lateral displacement
 Physics of sensors 35

Capacitive sensors
 Parallel-plate capacitor

 Displacement sensors
 Vertical displacement -single

 Systematically non-linear transfer

 Linear approximation will quickly result in
large errors!
 How can we make this sensor more linear?
 Physics of sensors 36

Capacitive sensors
 Parallel-plate capacitor

 Displacement sensors
 Vertical displacement - differential

 Error term scales in (Δd/d)² instead of Δd/d

 much smaller for small Δd/d
 Physics of sensors 37

Capacitive sensors
 Parallel-plate capacitor

 Accelerometers
 Physics of sensors 38

Inductive sensors
 Coil
µ

 Displacement sensor

 LVDT “Linearly-variable differential transformer”

 Physics of sensors 39

LVDT sensor
 Principle