COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.

PROGRAMME: Building Technology.

SEMESTER: Harmattan (1st) Semester.

ACADEMIC SESSION: 2023/2024.

COURSE PARTICULARS:

Course Code: BUD 101.

Course Title: Introduction to Building I.

Course Unit: 2 units.

Course Status: Compulsory.

LECTURERS’S DETAILS:

1. Bldr. Fayomi, Fidelis Olukayode, PhD, FNIOB, FNIBIFM, FCIPM, FCIA, MNIQS, Regd. Bldr.
Qualifications:
BSc (Building), M.tech (Proj. Mgt. Tech), PhD (Proj. Mgt).

2. Bldr. Otufowora, Oluwole Adelaja, MNIOB, Regd. Bldr.

Qualifications:
BSc (Building), MSc (Housing), MSc (Constr. Tech), PhD (in-view).

3. Ngwoke, Nwora Valentine.

Qualifications:
BSc (Building), MSc (Building Service), PhD (in-view).

COURSE DESCRIPTION:

 Overview of the building construction process and the building industry.

 The role of different stakeholders in the construction industry.
 Building as a structure, a process and a discipline.
 The history of building, its function and types; origin and growth of settlements, factors
affecting settlements and its development, statutory and local authority requirement.
  Introduction to building profession and other related professions in the built environment
such as Land Surveying and Geo-informatics, Urban and Regional Planning,
Architecture, Quantity Surveying, Estate Management, Civil, Electrical, and Mechanical
Engineering.
 Scope of duties, future prospects, and roles of professionals in the construction Industry.

LECTURE DELIVERY AND TEACHING AIDS:

 Lectures and Interactive classroom sessions.

 Case Study of Building types and Instructional charts.
 On-site Study tour and videos.
 Assignment presentations.

COURSE ASSESSMENT:

 Individual assignment - 20%.

 Field Trip / Case Study - 10%.
 Examination - 70%.

Overview of the Building Industry and the Building construction process.

Introduction

I. Building Industry Overview.

Building can be referred to as a structure that provides shelter, protection and comfort for human
activities. Buildings serve several societal and economic needs which include shelter from
weather, security, living space, privacy, storage and comfort. The building construction industry
encompasses a broad range of professionals and sectors involved in planning, designing,
constructing, and maintaining buildings. Construction is an important sector that drives the
economy of a Country. It creates jobs and contributes largely to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of a nation. The construction Industry is a huge investment-led sector where government
shows high interest. The industry plays a significant role in sustainable development, client
satisfaction, and efficient resource utilization.

The building Industry is a vital sector of the construction Industry. It encompasses the creation,
renovation, and maintenance of structures. It is a diverse industry that includes residential,
commercial, institutional and industrial construction projects. Building construction process is a
complex and multi-faceted endeavor that involves phases, from planning and design to
construction and completion, and post-construction. The industry is largely influenced by factors
such as economic conditions, technology advancements, sustainability initiatives, and changing
and evolving trends and regulations.

In recent years, there has been a growing focus on sustainable and energy-efficient construction
practices in the industry. This includes the adoption of green building materials, energy-efficient
designs, and renewable energy systems to minimize environmental impact and as well promote
long-term sustainability. The building construction process and the industry are dynamic and
ever-evolving, shaped by advancements in technology, changing market trends, users’ and
clients, satisfaction, and the increasing need for sustainable development.

II. Building construction process and phases.

The building process comprises of several phases referred to as process / procedure. This
process involves a series of steps and activities that ensure the successful completion of various
construction projects.

An overview of the building construction process:

a. Pre-construction Phase:
1. Project conception and feasibility study.
2. Site selection and land acquisition.
3. Project site surveying and ownership documentation.
4. Site condition survey and soil tests.

b. Design and Planning Phase:

1. Architectural design and conceptualization.
2. Structural design and Engineering.
3. Electrical, Mechanical and Plumbing design.
4. Project planning concept development, budgeting, and scheduling.
5. Planning of project procurement method, methodology and technology.
6. Obtaining necessary permits, approvals, and regulatory compliance.

c. Construction Phase (Building Production):

1. Site preparation- site clearing, site planning etc.
2. Building production – constructing the foundation, walls, floors, and roof. Electrical,
Mechanical and Plumbing systems are also installed during this phase.
The construction process also includes the installation of various building systems, such
as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), fire protection, and security
systems. Interior and exterior finishes, such as flooring, painting, and landscaping, are
completed to enhance the aesthetics and functionality of the building.
3. Quality control and inspections are conducted throughout the construction process to
ensure compliance with building codes and regulations. This includes checking the
 structural integrity, safety features, and adherence to environmental standards in the
building industry.

4. Building production – constructing the foundation, walls, floors, and roof. Electrical,
Mechanical and Plumbing systems are also installed during this phase.
The construction process also includes the installation of various building systems, such
as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), fire protection, and security
systems. Interior and exterior finishes, such as flooring, painting, and landscaping, are
completed to enhance the aesthetics and functionality of the building.

d. Completion and Demobilization phase: This phase involves the satisfactory completion of
the building project, commissioning of the building (i.e testing all fixture, fittings, systems
and installation to confirm that they are in proper working condition before handing over the
project), and the demobilization of the construction entity (contractor, sub-contractors, and
the construction team) and all temporary buildings and equipment from the site.
e. Post- construction Phase: This involves the window waiting period referred to as the defect
liability period after completion of building project. It may also include the contract
arrangement for post- construction maintenance services on the building / facility.

III. Stakeholders in the Industry (Key players).

The construction industry involves various stakeholders who play distinct roles in the building
process. Some of the key stakeholders in the Building construction industry, include:

1. Clients/Owners or Project Sponsor:

The clients initiate construction projects and provide the financial resources. They define
project objectives, determine the budget, and have the ultimate decision-making authority.
The client may not likely be a project sponsor – for an example Tertiary Education Trust
Fund (TETFund) intervention projects, NEEDS Assessment intervention projects, World
bank Assisted projects, MDG projects etc where the Client is the beneficiary Agency and the
Project sponsor is a distinct and separation body, wholly or partly financing the project.

2. Project Managers:
Project Managers oversee the entire construction project, by coordinating and managing the
various Construction managers and stakeholders. They ensure that the project progresses
according to the plan, resolve issues, and communicate with clients, contractors, and other
stakeholders.

3. Architects:
Architects create the design concept, Architectural plans, detailed architectural drawings,
and specifications that outline the layout, structure, and materials to be used for the
 construction projects. They consider the client’s requirements and compliance with building
codes and regulations. The Architects work closely with the clients to understand their
requirements, needs, and vision for the project. Architects ensure thet the design and plans
comply with local regulations, codes, and zoning requirements. They navigate the regulatory
landscape and obtain the necessary permits and approvals from relevant authorities. They
initiate space planning, optimization of use of space within a building by considering factors
such as flow, efficiency, accessibility, and sustainability to create spaces that meet the
project’s functional and operational requirements.

The Architects brings creativity and artistic vision to enhance aesthetics and visual appeal to
the construction process and completion. They consider the historical, cultural, socio-
economic relationship and functions, and contextual aspects of the site and environment to
create visually appealing designs that harmonize with the surroundings. They collaborate
with various stakeholders, including Clients, Builders, Engineers, Quantity Surveyors,
Urban planners, Estate Managers, Facilities Managers, Project Managers, Land Surveyors,
Geo-physicists, Contractors and Suppliers, and interior designers, to ensure a coordinated
and integrated approach to the construction project. They facilitate communication and
provide guidance throughout the design and construction phases. The Architects also play a
crucial role in material selection and specification by making appropriate materials, finishes,
and systems suitable for the construction project. They consider factors such as durability,
sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and aesthetic compatibility when choosing materials. They
are increasingly focused on incorporating sustainable design principles and environmentally
friendly practices into their projects by exploring energy-efficient strategies, renewable
materials, and sustainable building techniques to minimize environmental impact of the
construction.

4. Urban and Regional Planner:

The Urban and Regional Planner play an essential role in the construction industry,
particularly in the planning and development of cities and regions. Their specific roles
include:
a. land use planning: They assess the existing land use patterns and propose future land use
plans. They analyze factors like population, infrastructure requirements, environmental
considerations, and economic development goals to create comprehensive land use guide to
construction activities.
b. Zoning and Development Regulations: Urban planners create zoning regulation and
development guidelines that determine the allowable land uses, building heights, setbacks,
and other parameters. They also guide the design and construction team on adherence to the
standards and regulations.
c. Environmental Impact Assessment: Urban planners evaluate the potential
environmental impacts of proposed construction projects. They assess factors like air and
water quality, biodiversity, and cultural heritage, and recommend mitigation measures to
 minimize negative impacts. They also ensure compliance with environmental regulations
and support sustainable development practices.
d. Infrastructure planning and Historic preservation: Urban planners collaborates with
relevant stakeholders, including government agencies to identify and preserve historically
significant buildings and sites. They develop strategies to protect and revitalize cultural
heritage, by promoting cultural and economic value, while considering the compatibility of
new construction within the historic context. They assess the economic trends and
opportunities, and propose strategies to promote sustainable economic growth and render
advisory support to the design and construction team.

5. Quantity Surveyors:
The Quantity Surveyors (QS) often referred to as Building Economists play very crucial role
in the construction industry, providing expertise support in cost management and quantity
assessment throughout the construction process. They perform vital role in managing costs,
mitigating risks, and ensuring financial transparency in construction projects. Their expertise
helps optimize a project’s financial performance.

Their primary responsibilities include:

a. Cost Estimation: QS estimate and provide accurate cost projections for construction
projects. They analyze project specifications, construction drawings, and other
relevant documents to determine material quantities, labour, costs, and equipment
expenses.
b. Tender and Contract Administration: the QS assist in the tendering process by
preparing and evaluating contracts and procurement documents. They collaborate
with clients, project managers, consultants, builders, engineers, contractors, suppliers
and other construction team to ensure that the final contract terms align with the
project requirements and budget.
c. Cost Control: QS are responsible for monitoring and controlling project costs. They
track actual expenses against the budgeted amounts, identify cost-saving
opportunities, and recommend cost-effective alternatives without compromising
quality.
d. Value Engineering: QS contribute to value engineering exercises, which involve
reviewing the design and construction methods to identify potential cost reductions
while maintaining the project objectives. They propose alternative materials or design
choice that can save money without sacrificing performance.
e. Payment Assessment: QS assess contractors’ payment applications by verifying
completed work, measuring quantities, and calculating the corresponding payments.
They ensure that payments are accurately, fairly calculated based on the project
progress, and also ensure that valuations are promptly and timely raised to enhance
project success.
 f. Cost Reporting: QS prepare and analyze cost reports to provide regular updates on
the project’s financial status. They communicate thes reports to the clients, project
manager, builder, contractor and other stakeholders, highlighting any cost variations,
potential risks, and financial implications.
g. Claims Management: QS assist in managing claims and disputes related to project
costs. They assess claims, evaluate their validity, and negotiate settlements to
minimize disruptions and ensure fair resolutions for all parties involved.
h. Risk Assessment: QS identify and evaluate potential risks and uncertainties that may
impact project costs. They conduct risk assessments and develop risk management
strategies to minimize cost and time overruns.
i. Sustainability and Value for money: QS evaluate options that improve
sustainability and provide value for project fund. They consider the lifecycle costs,
energy-efficiency, and environmental impact of materials and systems to recommend
sustainable solutions.

6. Builder:
Project Builders play diverse and crucial roles in the construction industry, encompassing
project management, budgeting, quality assurance, compliance with building codes and
standards, communication, risk management, timeline management, and ensuring client
satisfaction. Their expertise and skills contribute to the successful construction projects and
the overall growth of the industry. Project builders undertake the following key roles in
construction projects:
a. Project Management: The project builders oversee the entire construction project,
managing every aspect of the construction process (building production) from start to
finish. They coordinate with other construction team members (i.e Architects, Quantity
Surveyors, Engineers, Urban planners, Sub-contractors and suppliers) to ensure smooth
execution and timely completion. The builder also coordinates and manages all the
activities of construct artisans on site.
b. Budget and Cost Control: Project builders prepare project budgets, estimate costs for
materials, laabour, and equipment. They control expenses, negotiate with suppliers for
competitive prices, and implement cost-saving measures without compromising quality.
c. Quality Assurance: Builders maintain strict quality standards throughout the
construction process. They ensure that all materials used meet specifications, supervise
workmanship to meet industry best acceptable practices, and conduct regular inspections
to identify and address any deficiencies.
d. Contracting and Procurement: Builders establish contracts with sub-contractors and
suppliers, ensuring that all parties understand their roles, responsibilities, and timelines.
They procure materials and services, monitor deliveries, and manage relationships with
suppliers to secure timely and high-quality resources.
e. Compliance with Regulations: Builders ensure that construction projects adhere to all
relevant laws, regulations, and codes. They obtain necessary permits, licenses, and
 approvals from local authorities, and ensure the project meets safety, health, and
environmental standards.
f. Communication and Collaboration: Builders serve as a central point of contact for all
stakeholders, facilitating effective communication and collaboration. They regularly
update clients, Architects, and other parties on the progress, issues, and potential
solutions.
g. Risk Management: Builders identifies, assess and manage potential risks and
uncertainties associated with construction projects. They identify potential hazards,
develop safety protocols, and ensure compliance with safety regulations. They also
implement risk mitigation strategies to prevent accidents and minimize project
disruptions.
h. Timeline Management: Builders create and manage project timelines, setting realistic
milestones and monitoring progress. They work closely with sub-contractors to
coordinate schedules, anticipate potential delays, and implement strategies to keep the
project on track.
i. Client satisfaction: Builders prioritize client satisfaction by understanding their needs
and expectations. They regularly communicate with clients, address concerns promptly,
and strive to deliver a high-quality final product within the agreed-upon budget
provisions and timeframe.
j. Post-Construction Support: Builders provide post-construction support such as
warranty management, and addressing any defects or issues that may arise after project
completion. They ensure that the clients are satisfied with the final outcome and resolve
any outstanding matters.

7. Engineers:
The engineers including the Civil (structural), Geo-physicist, Material, Safety, Electrical,
and Mechanical engineers, provide technical expertise to ensure the safety, stability, and
efficiency of the construction project. They work closely with the Architects and Builders
throughout the design and construction phases.
Their services include:
a. Civil Engineers (structural): They develop the structural design for the proposed building
and ensure effective supervision and monitoring of the implementation of the structural
design during the building production phase.
b. Geo-physicist: They conduct tests which includes the soil analysis (soil load bearing
capacity, soil condition, water composition, identification soil strata formation and
determination of water depth etc).
c. Material Engineers: They determine the strength, suitability and choice of material
selection for construction activities. Their services aids to facilitate improvement in
buildability, maintainability, functionability, durability, and sustainability of buildings.
d. Safety Engineers: they assist to initiate compliance with safety and environmental codes and
standards on construction sites.
e. Mechanical, and Electrical Engineers: The Mechanical engineers develops the Mechanical
designs for building production (i.e Mechanical drawings such as the design and installation
drawings for mechanical installations e.g Heat, Ventilation and Cooling systems (HVAC) –
A/Cs, and Plumbing installations in buildings). The Electrical Engineers develops designs for
electrical installations systems e.g CCTV systems, electrical wiring and fittings etc.

8. Contractors:
The contractors are responsible for executing the construction project. They manage and
coordinate the construction activities by engaging and working closely with a competent
builder to manage building production activities and workmen, hire sub-contractors, procure
materials, and ensure that the project is completed within the specified timeframe and
budget.

9. Sub-contractors:
Sub-contractors specialize in specific areas, such as plumbing, electrical work, carpentry, or
HVAC systems. They are hired by the main contractor to complete specialized tasks within
the overall construction project. They could be also nominated by the client (Nominated sub-
contractors).

10. Suppliers:
Suppliers provide the necessary materials, equipment, and components required for
construction. This includes sourcing construction materials like cement, concrete mix, steel,
timber, and electrical and mechanical fixtures.

11. Regulatory Authorities:

Regulatory authorities at the local, regional, and national levels enforce building codes,
permits, and regulations. They conduct inspections and ensure compliance with safety,
zoning, and environmental standards.

12. Tradesmen and Labourers:

They are the skilled and unskilled workforce involved in the physical construction work
under the close supervision of the project Builder. This category of workmen includes
construction workers, equipment operators, carpenters, electricians, plumbers, and many
others.

13. Financial Institutions:

They are the Institutions that provide funding and loans for construction projects. They
assess the project’s viability and manage financial aspects such as loans, insurance, and risk
management (e.g providing insurance bonds, bank guarantees / performance bonds,
Builders’ indemnity insurance etc).
IV. Building as a Structure, Process, and Profession.
Building can be viewed as a structure, process, and a profession, each with its unique aspects
and challenges. The understanding of these perspectives helps in comprehending the
complexities involved in the built environment and the importance of collaboration among
various stakeholders to create safe, functional, and sustainable buildings.

Introduction.

Building is a complex and multidimensional concept that can be understood from three different
perspectives, viz; as a structure, a process, and a profession. This lecture will explore these
aspects of building and understand how they are interrelated.

a. Building as a Structure.
i. Definition and components:
Building refers to the creation of physical structures or edifices that serve various
purposes.
A building consists of several components, including foundation, walls, floors,
roof, doors, windows, and utilities.
ii. Design and Engineering:
Building design involves the planning and creation of spaces that are functional,
aesthetically pleasing, and structurally sound.
Structural engineering ensures the stability, strength, and safety of the building,
considering factors like load-bearing capacity, materials, and seismic
considerations.
iii. Construction and Materials:
Construction involves the actual realization of the building design, including site
preparation, material selection, and assembly of the components.
Materials used in building construction vary based on factors like cost,
availability, durability, and intended use.

b. Building as a Process.
i. Project Management:
Building construction is a complex process that requires effective project
management.
Project managers oversee various tasks, including budgeting, scheduling,
coordinating with other stakeholders, and ensuring adherence to legal and safety
regulations.

ii. Phases of Building Process:

 Pre-construction Phase: This phase involves site analysis, feasibility studies,
and securing necessary permits.
Design Phase: Involves the development of conceptual design, detailed design,
and obtaining approvals.
Construction Phase: Involves site preparation, procurement, construction, and
quality control.
Post-construction Phase: Involves the commissioning, handing over, and
maintenance of the building.

c. Building as a Profession.
Roles and Responsibilities of a Builder:
The Building professionals are referred to Builders. They are engaged to manage
building production. They are responsible for implementing the design, coordinate the
activities of construction tradesmen and artisans to enhance productivity and project
success and oversee the construction activities.
Building profession are expected to adhere to ethical principles, including ensuring
public safety, respecting environmental concerns, and promoting sustainable best
practices.
Continuous update of skills and knowledge through training, certifications, and
staying updated with evolving building codes and regulations by continuing
professional development are statutory requirements of the Building profession.

V. History of Building, Functions and Types, Origin and Growth of

Settlements, and Factors Affecting Settlements.
The history of building and settlements is a testament to human ingenuity and
adaptability. Understanding the functions and types of buildings, as well as the factors
influencing settlement patterns, helps us appreciate the evolution of human settlements
and the built environment, shaping our present-day landscapes.

Introduction.
The history of building and settlements intertwined with human civilization’s progress
and development. This lecture will explore the evolution of building practices, the
functions and types of buildings, the origin and growth of settlements, and the various
factors that influence their formation and development.

a. History of Building:
Ancient Times:
Earliest human settlements consisted of simple structures made from natural
materials like timber, mud, and stones. The architectural achievements of ancient
 civilizations, such as the pyramids of Egypt, Indus Valley civilization, And the Great
Wall of China, showcased early mastery in construction techniques.

b. Medieval Period:
Construction in the medieval period witnessed the rise of stone masonry, pointed
arches, and ribbed vaults in Gothic architecture. Fortifications, castles, and cathedrals
became iconic structures of the time.

c. Renaissance and Modern Era:

Renaissance architecture revived classical elements like symmetry, proportion, and
harmony.
The Industrial Revolution brought about advancements in construction technologies,
including the use of iron and steel, leading to the development of skyscrapers and
large-scale infrastructure projects.

VI. Functions and Types of Buildings.

a. Residential Buildings:
These types of buildings provide shelter and living spaces for individuals and families.
They can range from single-family homes to apartment complexes.

b. Commercial Buildings:
Commercial buildings are designed for business activities, including offices, retail stores,
shopping malls, and industrial complexes.

c. Institutional Buildings:
Buildings classified as Institutional serve various purposes like educational institutions,
government offices, hospitals, and religious structures.

d. Cultural and Recreational Buildings:

These categories of buildings are designed for entertainment, recreational, and cultural
activities, such as museums, theaters, stadiums, and parks.

VII. Origin and Growth of Settlements:

a. Pre-historic Settlements:
Early humans lived in nomadic groups, eventually transitioning to settled agricultural
communities.

b. Urbanization:
 The growth of civilization led to the development of permanent settlements, often
centered within the basic necessities of life and resources like water, trade routes, or
defense advantages.

c. Factors Affecting Settlements:

The history of building and settlements is indeed a testament to human ingenuity and
adaptability which is largely influenced by the following factors-

 Physical Factors: Topography, climate, availability of natural resources, and

proximity to transportation routes influence settlement patterns.
 Socio-economic Factors: Trade, economic activities, social organization,
political stability, and cultural preferences influence the growth and location of
settlements.
 Technological Factors: Advances in transportation, communication, and
infrastructure influence the expansion and connectivity of settlements.

VIII. Building Materials.

The building materials play a crucial role in construction by providing structural
stability, functionality, and aesthetics to buildings. The choice of materials has a
significant impact on the durability, environmental impact, and overall sustainability of
the built environment. In recent years, there has been growing awareness of the
importance of the use sustainable building materials in the industry.
Sustainable building materials also play a vital role in reducing the environmental impact
of construction practices. By choosing responsibly sourced and energy-efficient
materials, long-term sustainability is fostered while, creating healthier, more efficient,
and valuable buildings.

Major types of building materials:

a. Traditional materials:
Traditional materials like timber, stone, and clay have been used for centuries due to
their abundance and ease of sourcing. These materials can still be viable options for
sustainable construction if sourced responsibly and properly managed.

b. Concrete and Cement:

Concrete made from a mix of aggregates, cement, and water, is one of the most
widely used construction materials. However, the production of cement, which is a
key component in concrete, releases a significant amount of carbon dioxide (CO2)
 into the atmosphere, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. The use of alternative
cements, like fly ash or slag-based cements, can reduce CO2 emissions.

c. Steel and Metal:

Steel and other metals are widely used for their strength and versatility. While they
can be recycled, the energy-intensive manufacturing processes and the extraction of
raw materials contribute to significant environmental impacts. However, using
recycled steel and reducing waste can help alleviate these concerns.

d. Sustainable Building Materials:

Sustainable materials are designed to minimize environmental impact throughout the
building life-cycle from sourcing to disposal.
Some examples include:
 Timber sourced from responsibly managed forests, certified by approved
government agencies or authorities.
 Recycled materials like reclaimed wood (timber), recycled concrete
aggregates, or recycled plastics.
 Bio-based materials, such as bamboo, straw bales, or natural fibres, which
have lower embodied energy and carbon footprint.
 High-performance insulation materials that reduce energy consumption,
such as cellulose, straw, or hempcrete.

Benefits of Sustainable Building Materials:

a. Reduced environmental impact:
Sustainable materials help to conserve natural resources, reduce energy consumption, and
minimize waste and pollution during manufacturing and disposal.

b. Improved energy efficiency:

Insulation materials and technologies can enhance a building’s energy efficiency,
reducing energy costs and carbon emissions.

c. Health and well-being:

Sustainable materials can contribute to a healthier indoor environment by reducing toxic
chemicals and improving the quality of in-door air.

d. Market demand and value:

As sustainability becomes a priority for many end-users and businesses, buildings
constructed with sustainable materials can have higher market value and be more
attractive to potential owners, buyers or tenants.
Physical and Mechanical Properties, and uses of some common Building
Materials:
Building materials commonly used in construction possesses their own set of physical and
mechanical properties. These properties determine the suitability, performance, and durability of
the materials in the different applications. The followings are some common types of building
materials and their key properties:

a. Timber (Wood):
 Physical properties: Timber is a natural material derived from trees. It is
lightweight, versatile, and has excellent thermal and acoustic insulation
properties. It can be easily shaped and treated.
 Mechanical properties: It has good strength-to-weight ratio, is flexible, and
offers resistance to compression and tension forces. However, it can be
susceptible to rot, insects, and fire, depending on the type of timber and treatment.
 Common uses of Timber in building construction:
 Structural support- Timber is commonly used for the framing of
buildings, including floor joists, wall studs, and roof beams. It is a popular
choice due to its strength, versatility, and cost-effectiveness.
 Cladding and siding- Timber is often used for exterior cladding and
siding, providing both protection and an aesthetic appeal to buildings.
Different types of timber can be used to achieve various finishes, from
natural wood tones to painted surfaces.
 Interior finishes- Timber is used extensively for interior finishes, such as
flooring, wall paneling, and cabinetry. Its warmth and beauty create a
welcoming and cozy atmosphere within buildings.

b. Concrete:
 Physical properties: Concrete is a composite material made from cement,
aggregates (like sand and gravel), and water. It is versatile, fire-resistant, and has
good thermal mass properties.
 Mechanical properties: Concrete is known for its compressive strength, making
it ideal for load-bearing structures. It is relatively weak in tension, so
reinforcement, usually in form of steel bars or meshes, is incorporated to enhance
its tensile strength.
 Common uses of Concrete in building construction:
 Foundations and Basements- Concrete is widely used for construction of
foundations and basements due to its high compressive strength and
durability. It provides a solid and stable base for buildings, ensuring
structural stability.
  Structural components- Concrete is commonly used for constructing
load-bearing walls, columns, and beams in buildings. its high compressive
strength allows it to support heavy loads and provide structural stability.
 Floors and Slabs- Concrete is commonly used for constructing floors and
slabs in both residential and commercial buildings. it serves as a solid and
long-lasting surface for various purposes, such as walking, storing heavy
equipment, or supporting machinery.
 Facades- Concrete is also used for creating external facades of buildings.
It can be formed into various shapes and finishes, allowing for
architectural diversity and aesthetic appeal. Additionally, concrete panels
provide insulation, protection, and soundproofing.

c. Steel:
 Physical properties: Steel is an alloy composed mainly of iron and carbon, along
with other elements. It is strong, durable, and has excellent resistance to fire,
corrosion, and environmental factors.
 Mechanical properties: steel exhibits high tensile and compressive strength,
making it suitable for structural applications. It is also flexible and ductile,
allowing for various design possibilities. The mechanical properties of steel can
be enhanced through heat treatment and alloying.
 Common uses of Steel in Building construction:
 Structural support- Steel is widely used in building construction for its
high strength-to-weight ratio. It is often employed in the form of steel
beams, columns, and trusses. Its high tensile strength allows for increased
load-bearing capacity, making it an ideal choice for skyscrapers and large
commercial buildings.
 Reinforcement- Steel is commonly used as reinforcement in concrete
structures. Rebar (steel bar) is embedded within concrete to provide
additional strength, increasing the building’s load-bearing capacity and
resistance to external forces such as earthquakes, tremor, and wind.
 Facades and Cladding- Steel is often used for the exterior facades and
cladding of buildings due to its aesthetic appeal and ability to withstand
harsh weather conditions. Different types of steel panels, such as stainless
steel and weathering steel or composite steel sheets (panels), offer both
visual appeal and log-term durability.
 Roofing Systems- Steel roofing systems, such as standing seam roofs, are
popular in commercial and industrial buildings. they provide excellent
strength, durability, and resistance to fire and weather elements. Steels are
versatile and can be designed in different forms, shapes, and sizes.
  Interior Applications- Steel is also extensively used in interior
applications, such as partitions, staircases, and elevators. It offers a sleek
and modern aesthetic along with strength and stability, making it suitable
for both functional and decorative purposes.

d. Clay in Brick and Masonry:

 Physical properties: Brick are made from clay materials and are known for their
durability, thermal insulation, and fire resistance. Masonry refers to structures
built using bricks or concrete blocks with mortar.
 Mechanical properties: Bricks and masonry provide good compressive strength
and are highly resistant to fire, but their tensile strength is low. Reinforcement or
structural elements, like steel bars or concrete beams, are often used to enhance
their load-bearing capacity.
 Common uses of Clay in Building construction:
 Bricks and Blocks- Clay is a primary ingredient in the production of
bricks and blocks. The clay is molded into shape, dried, and fired in a kiln
to create durable and stable building units. Clay bricks and blocks are
widely used for load-bearing walls, partitions, and facades in both
residential and commercial construction.
 Roofing Tiles- Clay tiles are popular choice for roofing due to their
durability, insulating properties, and aesthetics appeal. The clay tiles can
be shaped into various designs, forms and size, providing a range of
options for architectural styles.
 Terracotta- terracotta, meaning “baked earth,” is a type of clay product
used for decorative elements, such as architectural ornaments, facades
cladding, and pottery. It is known for its earthy colour, texture, and natural
finish.
 Adobe and Cob- Adobe is a building technique that uses clay , sand, and
straw mixed together to form sturdy blocks. These blocks are then sun-
dried or air-dried for construction. Cob is a similar technique that involves
creating a mixture of clay, sand, and straw, which is built in layers to form
walls. Both Abode and Cob are sustainable and energy-efficient building
methods commonly used for homes and low-rise structures.
 Plasters and Renders- Clay provides an excellent base ingredient for
plasters and renders. These mixtures are applied to walls for surface
protection, insulation, and aesthetic finishes. Clay plasters and renders are
breathable, regulate to humidity, and contribute to healthy indoor air
quality.
 Ceramic Tiles and Sanitary ware- Clay is extensively used in the
production of ceramic tiles and sanitary ware, such as toilets water closets
 (WC), wash-hand-basins (WHB), sinks, and bathtubs. These products are
made by shaping clay, drying, and firing them at high temperatures.
Ceramic tiles are widely used for floor and walls finishes, and decorative
purposes due to their durability, resistance to moisture, and attractive
finishes.
e. Glass:
 Physical properties: Glass is a transparent material made primarily from silica
and other minerals. It is widely used for windows, doors, and facades due to ita
visual appeal, light transmission, and weather resistance.
 Mechanical properties: Glass is brittle and prone to breakage under tensile or
impact forces. However, advancements in glass technology have led to the
development of tempered, laminated, and reinforced glasses that offer increased
strength and safety.
 Common uses of Glass in building construction:
 Windows and Facades- Glass is primarily used for windows in buildings,
allowing natural light to enter while providing a transparent view. Modern
advancements have led to energy-efficient glass types (low-e glass) that
help control temperature, reduce heat transfer, and enhance insulation.
Glass facades are also used extensively in contemporary architecture for
their aesthetic appeal and ability to create open, light-filled spaces.
 Skylights and Roofing- Glass is used to create skylights and glass roofs,
providing natural daylight to interior spaces. These features enhance the
visual appeal of buildings, improve indoor lighting conditions, and reduce
the need for artificial lighting during the day.
 Glass Partitions and Doors- Glass partitions and doors are commonly
used in office spaces and commercial buildings to create separate areas of
privacy and space confinements, while maintaining an open feel. Glass
partitions offer avenues to create privacy, sound insulation, acoustic
control, while steel allowing natural light to flow through.
 Safety and Security- Glass can be tempered or laminated to enhance its
safety and security features. Tempered glass is heat-treated to increase its
strength and shatter resistance, making it suitable for applications such as
building entrances and required safety standards. Laminated glass consist
of multiple layers held together by an interlayer, providing additional
strength, security, and sound insulation.
 Decorative Applications- Glass with its various colours, textures, and
patterns, is widely used for decorative purposes in buildings. it can be used
for decorative panels, glass staircases, glass walls, or as a structural
element within the building’s design, adding a visually strking element to
the overall aesthetics.
 f. Plastics:
 Physical properties: Plastics are synthetic materials derived from polymers.
They are lightweight, versatile, and resistant to moisture, chemicals, and
corrosion. They are commonly used in piping, insulation, and surface finishes.
 Mechanical properties: The mechanical properties of plastics can vary widely
depending on their composition. Some plastics offer good strength and flexibility,
while others may be more brittle or resistant to high temperatures.
 Common uses of Plastics in Building construction:
 Insulation- Plastic materials, such as expanded polystyrene (EPS) and
polyurethane (PU) foams, are commonly used for insulation purposes.
They are excellent insulators, helping to control temperature, reduce
energy consumption, and provide thermal comfort within buildings.
 Pipes and Plumbing- Plastic pipes, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
pipes, are extensively used for plumbing systems in buildings. they are
lightweight, durable, corrosion-resistant, and easy to install, making them
a popular choice for water supply, drainage, and sewage systems.
 Flooring and Wall Panels- Plastic-based flooring materials, such as
vinyl and laminate, are widely used in residential and commercial
buildings. They offer durable, ease of maintenance, wide design options,
and resistance to moisture and wear. Similarly, plastic wall panels, made
of materials like PVC, are used for interior wall coverings due to their
low maintenance, moisture resistance, and decorative

IX. An Overview Rock Formation and Segmentation.

Rocks are formed through a geological process known as the Rock cycle, which involves
various processes such as weathering, erosion, deposition, and lithification. The rock cycle
describes how rocks continuously change from one form to another over millions of years. It
is important to note that the process of rock segmentation and soil formation is a continuous
and dynamic process that takes place over long periods of time. Soils are essential in
construction and as well plays vital roles in supporting plant growth, and providing
foundation for ecosystems.

Rock Formation:
 Igneous Rocks- The igneous rocks are formed from the solidification and
crystallization of hot molten magma or lava. When magma cools and solidifies
beneath the Earth’s surface, intrusive igneous rocks like granite are formed. When
lava cools and solidifies on the Earth’s surface, extrusive igneous rocks like basalt
are formed.
  Sedimentary Rocks- sedimentary rocks are formed through the deposition and
compaction of sediments. Sediments are small particles of rock, mineral fragments,
organic matter, or chemical precipitates that are transported by wind, water, or ice.
Over time, these sediments accumulate in layers and undergo compaction,
cementation, and lithification to form rock like sandstone, limestone, and shale.
 Metamorphic Rocks- The metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks
that undergo high temperatures, pressure, or chemical chandes deep within the
Earth’s crust. These changes cause the minerals and textures of the rocks to
recrystallize, resulting in rocks such as marble, slate, and gneiss.

Segmentation of Rocks to Form Soils:

The weathering process breaks down the rocks into smaller fragments, leading to the formation
of soils. Over time, these weathering processes, combined with the deposition of organic matter,
contribute to the development of soils. The texture, size, and composition of the resulting soil are
influenced by the type of parent rock, climatic conditions, topography, and biotic factors.
Weathering can occur through various mechanisms:

 Physical weathering- This type of weathering involves the physical

disintegration of rocks without changing their chemical composition. It includes
processes like freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion, and contraction and expansion due to
temperature changes. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces or
fragments, called regolith.
 Chemical weathering- Chemical weathering involves the alteration of rocks
through chemical reactions, leading to changes in their mineral composition. It
includes processes like dissolution, oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation.
Chemical weathering can breakdown rocks into smaller particles and release
minerals and nutrients that contribute to soil formation.
 Biological weathering- Biological weathering occurs when living organisms like
plants, animals, and micro-organisms contribute to the breakdown of rocks. Plants
roots, burrowing animals, and microbial activity can physically break rocks and
enhance chemical weathering processes, facilitating the segmentation of rocks
into smaller fragments.

Soil Types, Nature, and Classification and uses in Building construction:

Soil is a naturally occurring mixture of weathered rocks, minerals, organic matter, air, and water.
It is a vital resource for infrastructure development, landscape enhancement, and building
production. Soil types are classified based on their composition and properties, which can vary
widely depending on geographical location and geological processes.

The common type of soil types includes:

 1. Clay: clay soils have fine particles that stick together, resulting in good water retention
but poor drainage. They tend to shrink when dry and swell when wet, potentially leading
to structural issues.
2. Sandy: Sandy soils have larger particles, which allow for good drainage but poor water
retention. These soils are prone to erosion due to their loose nature.
3. Silt: Silt soils have medium-sized particles that are smaller than sand but large than clay.
They have good water retention and drainage properties, making them suitable for plant
and ornamental trees cultivation in landscaping development.
4. Loam: Loamy soils are a balanced mixture of clay, silt, sandy soil. It has good water
retention, drainage, and fertility properties, making it ideal for plant growth. In
construction, loam soil can be used for landscaping, gardens, and as a layer for plant
beds.

Classification and Uses of Soil in Building Construction:

In terms of classification and uses in building construction, soil is categorized based on its
engineering properties, namely:

1. Cohesive soils: These soils, such as clay, have cohesive properties. They are often used
as backfill material, for making embankments, and as a stabilizing agent due to their
ability to retain moisture and provide support.
2. Granular soils: These soils, including sand and gravel, have good drainage properties.
They are commonly used as structural fill material, for foundations, and in drainage
systems.
3. Organic soils: These soils are rich in organic matter and may have poor load-bearing
capacity. They are generally unsuitable for construction purposes and require
stabilization or removal from site before construction.

X. Choice of Building Sites:

While choosing a building site, the following factors are considered:

1. Location- The location of building site is crucial. Factors such as proximity to

amenities, accessibility to transport networks, availability of utilities, and the overall
convenience for future occupants are evaluated to make judgment.
2. Zoning and Regulations- Understanding the zoning regulations in the area to ensure
that intended use of the building is compatible with the site. Restrictions and special
requirement should be complied with.
3. Site Conditions- An assessment of the physical conditions of the proposed site, such
as topography, soil quality, drainage, and any potential environmental or geological
risks. These factors can impact construction costs and design considerations.
 4. Surroundings/ Environment- The surroundings of the proposed site for the
building project should be analyzed with consideration for factors such as
neighbouring properties, land uses, and potential future developments. It’s essential
to understand how these factors may impact your future plans and value of the
proposed building project.
5. Budget- The cost of acquiring the proposed site, including any associated fees,
permits, or legal processes should be evaluated. Additionally, considerations for
potential costs of site preparation, infrastructure development, and any other
expenses required for the construction should be made.
6. Future Growth and Demand- The future prospects of the area, economic trends,
population growth, and any potential changes in the neighbourhood or locality. An
assessment of the long term demand for building is crucial for investments and
sustainability.
7. Professional Advice- Consult with built-environment professionals such as
Architects, Builders, Engineers, or Real Estate practitioners who have expertise in
site selection and can provide valuable insights and assist in analyzing the feasibility
and potentials of specific proposed buildings.

XI. Building Preliminary Works:

Building preliminary works on a construction project involve a series of preparatory
activities that need to be carried out before the actual building production can
commence. These preliminary works are crucial in ensuring that the proposed building
project starts smoothly and that all necessary requirements are addressed.
The key aspects of building preliminary works include:

1. Site clearing and preparation- This is considered as the first step in building
preliminary works. The site is cleared of all bushes, construction obstacles, and
vegetable top-soil. This involves removing any existing structures, vegetation, and
debris. It may also involve grading the land, leveling any uneven surfaces, and
ensuring proper drainage.
2. Site investigation and survey- It is important to conduct a thorough investigation
and survey of the proposed construction site. This includes analyzing the soil
conditions, assessing the environmental impact, checking for any existing utility
lines or structures, and assessing the overall feasibility of the proposed project.
3. Design and engineering- Building works also include architectural and engineering
tasks. The construction team (Architects, Builders, Engineers, Quantity surveyors,
and others) work on creating detailed designs, drawings, and specifications for the
 project. These designs need to be reviewed and approved, ensuring compliance with
building codes, regulations, and client’s requirements.
4. Permits and approvals- Before commencing construction, obtaining necessary
permits and approvals from relevant local authorities is essential. This typically
involves submitting detailed plans, specifications, and other related documents for
review, ensuring compliance with building regulations, zoning laws, and
environmental requirements.
5. Utilities and services- During the preliminary phase, it is crucial to plan for
necessary utilities and services required for the building. This includes arranging for
connections to water supply, electricity, gas, telecommunications, and other essential
services. Coordination with utility companies and obtaining necessary approvals are
important aspects of this process.
6. Material procurement- Preliminary works also involve identifying and procuring
the required construction materials and equipment for the project. This includes
preparing material schedules, assessing suppliers, evaluating cost, quality, and
delivery timelines, and placing orders accordingly.
7. Construction mobilization- Before the main construction begins, mobilization
activities need to take place. This involves setting up temporary facilities such as
construction of site offices, storage areas, sick bay / First-aid treatment centre, rest-
room facilities, and workers’ accommodation. It may also include establishing
project management and communication systems, as well as securing necessary
insurances and permits for construction activities to commence.
8. Environmental and safety considerations- preliminary works should also address
environmental and safety requirements. Conducting environmental impact
assessments, preparing environmental management plans, assessing potential risks,
and developing safety protocols are crucial steps to ensure that the project adheres to
legal and ethical standards.

XII. Site Investigation:

Site investigation plays vital role in the success of a building project. By gathering
essential data and information, it helps in making informed design and construction
decisions, mitigating risks, ensuring compliance, and optimizing project outcomes.

1. Site investigation- is a crucial aspect of the preliminary works phase in a building

project. It involves conducting a thorough examination and assessment of the
construction site to gather information and data that will aid in the design,
construction, and management of the project. Key aspects of site investigation in a
building project include: Soil investigation involves drilling boreholes, collecting soil
samples, and conducting laboratory tests to determine the soil type, composition,
 strength, and stability. This information is critical for foundation design, determining
earthwork requirements, and assessing any potential geotechnical hazards.
2. Topographical survey- A topographical survey is conducted to measure and map
the features and contours of the proposed construction site. This survey provides
information about the existing land and its elevation, slopes, and drainage patterns. It
helps in designing the site plans, planning for grading the land, planning for storm-
water management, ensuring proper site access.
3. Utility investigation- Prior to construction, it is essential to identify and locate any
existing utility lines within the construction site. This includes water supply lines,
sewage systems, gas pipelines, electrical cables, and telecommunications
infrastructure. It is important to avoid damaging or interfering with these utilities
during construction, so accurate mapping and coordination with relevant utility
companies are necessary.
4. Environmental assessment- Site investigation includes conducting an
environmental assessment to identify environmental risks or constraints associated
with the project. This may involve evaluating the presence of contaminants,
protected species, or sensitive habitats. Environmental assessments help in designing
appropriate mitigation measures, complying with environmental regulations, and
ensuring sustainable construction practices.
5. Access and transport assessment- It is important to assess the accessibility of the
construction site and its surrounding road network. This includes analyzing road
conditions, traffic patterns, and any potential constraints in terms of site access and
transport of construction materials and equipment. Such assessments assist in
planning construction logistics, ensuring efficient transport routes, and minimizing
disruption impacts to the local community.
6. Site history and constraints- Site investigation also involves collecting information
about the historical use of the site, any previous constructions, and potential
constraints that may impact the project. This includes reviewing land records,
studying aerial photographs, and conducting interviews with local residents or
authorities. Understanding the site’s history helps in identifying potential risks and
constraints and adopting appropriate mitigation measures.
7. Geotechnical investigations- In addition to assessing the soil, site investigation may
also involve other geotechnical investigations. This could include evaluating the
presence of groundwater, conducting stability assessments for slopes or excavations,
and assessing the seismic activity of the area. These assessments are critical for
designing foundations, retaining structures, and ensuring overall structural stability.
8. Legal and regulatory requirements- Site investigation also includes examining
relevant legal and regulatory requirements. This involves reviewing zoning
regulations, codes, environmental laws, and other local rules that may impact the
project. Compliance with these requirements is essential to ensure that the project is
legally sound and meets all necessary approvals.
XIII. Common Soil Tests in Building Construction:
In building construction projects, various soil tests are conducted to assess the
engineering properties and sustainability of the soil for construction. These tests provide
important information for foundation design, earthwork requirements, and other
geotechnical considerations. The specific tests selection depends on the soil type, project
requirements, and engineering considerations. Professional geotechnical engineers or
soil testing laboratories conduct these tests to provide accurate and reliable information
for safe and efficient construction. Some of the common types of soil tests conducted in
buildings are:

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)- The SPT is a widely used test to determine the
soil’s resistance to penetration. It involves driving a standard split-spoon sampler
into the ground using hammer, recording the number of blows required to drive the
sampler to a certain depth, and collecting soil samples at various depths. The test
provides information about the soil’s shear strength, density, and stratification.
2. Cone Penetration Test (CPT)- The CPT uses a cone-shaped penetrometer that is
pushed into the ground at a constant rate. It measures the resistance of the soil to
penetration and provides continuous data on the soil’s mechanical properties,
including cone resistance and friction. The test is useful for assessing soil strength,
compaction, and liquefaction potential.
3. Plate Load Test- This test is performed to determine the bearing capacity of the soil
and the settlement under a given load. A load plate is placed on the soil surface, and
incrementally increasing loads are applied. The settlement of the plate is measured,
allowing engineers to calculate the soil’s ultimate bearing capacity and its ability to
support structural loads.
4. Atterberg Limits Test- The Atterberg limits test determines the plastic and liquid
limits of cohesive soils, such as clay. It determines the moisture content at which the
soil transitions between solid, plastic, and liquid states. The test provides information
about soil’s compressibility, shrinkage potential, and its behaviour when subjected to
changes in moisture content.
5. Proctor Compaction Test- This test is conducted to determine the optimal moisture
content and maximum dry density of a soil for compaction. Different moisture
contents are applied to the soil samples, and the samples are compacted using a
standard compaction procedure. The test helps in determining the soil’s compaction
characteristics and aids in optimizing compaction efforts during construction.
6. Permeability Test- The permeability test measures the rate at which water flows
through soil. It helps in determining the soil’s permeability, which is essential for
assessing drainage characteristics, seepage rates, and the potential for soil erosion.
 Different permeability test methods, such as constant head or falling head tests, can
be performed depending on the soil type and project requirements.
7. Consolidation Test- The consolidation test is conducted to determine the
compression and settlement characteristics of cohesive soils under applied loads over
time. It helps in assessing the soil’s consolidation behaviour, settlement potential,
and its ability to support structural loads without excessive settlement.