INDEX

Sr. No Topic Name Page No.

1. Basics of Biology 3
2. Biotechnology 21
3. Health (Diseases and Vaccines) 38
4. Basics Of Chemistry 52
5. Nuclear Energy 59
6. Basics of Physics 64
7. Space Technology 71
8. Defense and Technology 91
9. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 100
10. Emerging Technologies 110
 1. Basics of Biology
Topics Covered

1. Structure Of The Cell 2. Cell Organelles

3. Plasma Membrane 4. Cell Wall
5. Cytoplasm 6. Nucleoid Or Nucleus
7. Ribosomes 8. Mitochondria
9. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 10. Golgi Apparatus
11. Lysosomes 12. Vacuoles
13. Plastids 14. Stem Cells
15. Classifications Of Organisms 16. Five Kingdom
17. Classification Of Plant Classification 18. Classification Of Animals Kingdom
19. Division Of Cell &Cell Cycle 20. Chromosomal Of Inheritance
21. Molecular Basis Of Inheritance
1. Structure Of The Cell

Robert Hooke Discovered and coined the term cell in 1665

Robert Brown Discovered Cell Nucleus in 1831
Schleiden (1838) and Presented The cell theory, that all the plants and animals are composed of cells and that the
Schwann (1839) cell is the basic unit of life.
What is a Cell?

»» The cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms. According to the
postulates of the cell theory, a cell is what gives everything life and is capable of performing all the
essential tasks of an organism.
»» A cell may duplicate itself on its own. As a result, they are referred to as the foundation of life.
»» The cytoplasm, a fluid found inside every cell, is surrounded by a membrane. Many substances like
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids are also found in the cytoplasm. In addition, cell organelles are
suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell.
»» Cells are complex, and their constituents serve a variety of tasks in an organism. Similar to constructing
bricks, they come in a variety of sizes and shapes.
»» Living organisms are made up of cells of different shapes and sizes. In addition, it gives structure to the
body and converts nutrients into energy.

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`` Types of Cell : Cells and thus organisms can be categorized as eukaryotic or prokaryotic depending on
whether they include or lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other organelles.

Fig. Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic Cells :

• Prokaryotic cells are those without a membrane-bound nucleus.

• Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms that are thought to be the oldest on the planet.
• Bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma, and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms) are
examples of prokaryotic cells.
• They typically have a smaller size and reproduce more quickly.
• They could have a wide range of sizes and shapes.
• With the exception of mycoplasma, prokaryotes have a cell wall that surrounds the cell membrane.
• A prokaryotic cell has a single membrane, all reactions take place in the cytoplasm.
• No distinct nucleus is present.
• The genetic material is essentially naked because it is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
• The genetic material is contained on a single chromosome.
• Lysosomes, chloroplasts, Golgi bodies, and mitochondria are not present.
• Ribosomes are connected to the cell’s plasma membrane in prokaryotes & responsible for protein
synthesis.
• The cell wall determines the shape of the cell and provides strong structural support to prokaryotes.
And to prevent the bacterium from bursting or collapsing.
• Prokaryotes are distinguished by a specific type of differentiated cell membrane called a mesosome.
In essence, they are infoldings of the cell membranes.
• The term “capsule” refers to the outer protective layer that bacteria have in addition to their cell
walls. It aids in the retention of moisture, guards against cell engulfment, and aids in the clinging
of cells to surfaces and nutrients.
• Prokaryotic cells store extra material as inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm. Phosphate granules,
cyanophycean granules, and glycogen granules are a few examples of those that are not bound by
any membrane systems and are found floating freely in the cytoplasm.
• They reproduce asexually through binary fission.
• Further membrane expansions into the cytoplasm called chromatophores, which contain pigments,
are seen in some prokaryotes such as cyanobacteria.
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Eukaryotic Cells :

»» Eukaryotic cells have a well-organized nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope.

»» Protists, plants, animals, and fungi are all considered to be eukaryotes.
»» The existence of membrane-bound organelles results in considerable compartmentalization of
cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells.
»» Eukaryotic cells feature a wide range of intricate cytoskeletal and locomotory structures.
»» The genetic material in their bodies is organized into chromosomes.
»» Not every eukaryotic cell is the same.
»» Plant cells differ from animal cells in that they have a cellwall, plastids, and a huge central vacuole,
which are all absent in animal cells.
»» They can reproduce asexually or sexually.
»» A process known as mitosis divides the cells.
Difference Between Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell
Basis of comparison Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Cell Type These cells are exclusively unicellular. Eukaryotic cells can be unicellular or multi-
cellular in nature.
Size of the cell The typical range of a cell’s diameter is Eukaryotic cells have a diameter of 10 to
between 0.2 and 2.0 micrometers. 100 micrometers.
Cell Wall Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall, which is Cell walls are extremely rare in eukary-
complex and multi-faceted. otic cells, and when they do exist, they are
of a simple chemical nature.
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is found in prokaryotic cells but is It is made up of both cytoplasm and or-
absent from the majority of cell organelles. ganelles in eukaryotic cells.
Nucleus This cell’s actual nucleus is lacking; instead, It has a real nucleus.
nucleotides are present.
Ribosomes There are ribosomes, but they are tiny and Although ribosomes are present, they have
spherical in shape. a large and linear form.
DNA Arrangements DNA is structured in a circular pattern. DNA has a linear structure.
Mitochondria There are no mitochondria. Mitochondria are present, which is a cell’s
powerhouse
Lysosomes, Endoplas- There are no lysosomes, endoplasmic reticu- Lysosomes, centromeres, and the endo-
mic Reticulum, and lum, or centromeres. plasmic reticulum are all present.
centromeres
Plasmid In prokaryotes, plasmids are typically Plasmids are extremely rare in eukary-
present. otes.
Cell Division Binary fission is the method used in cell Mitosis is a process for cell division.
division.
Flagella Flagella are tiny in size. Large flagella are present.
Reproduction Only asexual reproduction takes place in Reproduction is asexual as well as sexual.
these cells.
Examples Examples include bacteria and archaea. Examples include cells from plants and
animals.

2. Cell Organelles :
»» A cell organelle is a subcellular structure that, like an organ in the body, has one or more specific tasks
to carry out within the cell. The nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes are a few of the more significant
cell organelles.
»» These cell organelles comprise both membrane and non-membrane-bound organelles that exist within

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cells and have diverse shapes and functions. They collaborate effectively and work together to support
the cell’s normal operation. The cell has a variety of organelles that are divided into three groups
based on whether or not they have a membrane.
• Organelles without membranes : Non-membrane-bound cell organelles include the cell wall,
ribosomes, and cytoskeleton. They can be found in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
• Organelles with a single membrane-bound : vacuole, lysosome, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic
reticulum are single membrane-bound organelles
• Double membrane-bound organelles : the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplast, which are
double membrane-bound organelles, which are present in the eukaryotic cell only.

Fig. Cell Organelles

3. Plasma Membrane :
»» The plasma membrane is another name for the
cell membrane.
»» The cell’s plasma membrane is its outermost
layer, separating its interior from the outside
world.
»» The cell membrane is made up of lipids organized
in a bilayer. The membrane’s lipid component is
primarily composed of phosphoglycerides.
»» The movement of molecules through the plasma
membrane is one of its key activities.
»» The membrane is selectively permeable to some
Plasma Membrane
molecules present on either side of it.
»» Neutral solutes can pass across the membrane through the process of simple diffusion down the
concentration gradient, or from a higher concentration to a lower concentration.
(i) Endocytosis -

»» The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules called lipids and proteins.
»» The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf in food and other material from

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its external environment. Such processes are known as endocytosis (endo → internal; cyto → of a cell).
Amoeba acquires its food through such processes.
(ii) Diffusion -

»» Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane [The plasma membrane is porous and allows
the movement of substances or materials both inward and outward].
»» Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called
diffusion [spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration (hypertonic solu-
tion) to a region where its concentration is low (hypotonic solution)].
»» Thus, diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the cell and
its external environment.
(iii) Osmosis -

»» Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water molecules through a selectively perme-
able membrane is called osmosis.
»» Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane to a region of low water concentration. Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusion through
a selectively permeable membrane.
»» Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through osmosis. Absorption
of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.
»» Thus, diffusion is important in exchange of gases and water in the life of a cell. In additions to this, the
cell also obtains nutrition from its environment.
»» Different molecules move in and out of the cell through a type of transport requiring use of energy in
the form of ATP.
(iv) Reverse Osmosis (RO) -

»» Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane to re-
move larger particles from drinking water.
»» In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure.
»» Reverse Osmosis is a phenomenon where pure water flows from a dilute solution [hypotonic] through
a semi permeable membrane to a higher concentrated solution [hypertonic].
»» Semi permeable means that the membrane will allow small molecules and ions to pass through it but
acts as a barrier to larger molecules or dissolved substances.
4. Cell Wall :
»» Cell wall is absent in animals.
»» Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering called the cell wall.
The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane.
»» The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance and provides
structural strength to plants.
Plasmolysis -

»» When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents
of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis (plasma → fluid; lysis →
disintegration, decomposition).
»» Only living cells, and not dead cells, are able to absorb water by osmosis. Cell walls permit the cells of

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plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute [hypotonic] external media without shrinkage.
»» In such media the cells tend to lose water by osmosis. The cell shrinks, building up pressure against the
cell wall. The wall exerts an equal pressure against the shrunken cell.
»» Cell wall also prevents the bursting of cells when the cells are surrounded by a hypertonic medium
(medium of high concentration).
»» In such media the cells tend to gain water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure against the
cell wall. The wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell.
»» Because of their walls, plant cells can withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium than
animal cells.
5. Cytoplasm :
»» It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
»» The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
»» It also contains many specialized cell organelles [mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc].
»» Each of these organelles performs a specific function for the cell.
»» Cell organelles are enclosed by membranes.
»» The significance of membranes can be illustrated with the example of viruses.
»» Viruses lack any membranes and hence do not show characteristics of life until they enter a living body
and use its cell machinery to multiply.

Cytoplasm Nucleus
»»
6. Nucleoid Or Nucleus :
»» It is an important component of the living cell.
»» It is generally spherical and located in the center of the cell.
»» It can be stained and seen easily with the help of a microscope.
»» Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double layered membrane called the nuclear membrane.
»» This membrane is also porous and allows the movement of materials between the cytoplasm and the
inside of the nucleus [diffusion].
»» With a microscope of higher magnification, we can see a smaller spherical body in the nucleus. It is
called the nucleolus.
»» In addition, nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. These carry genes and help in
inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring. The chromosomes can be seen

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only when the cell divides.

»» Gene is a unit of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of a hereditary characteristic
from parents to offspring. This means that your parents pass some of their characteristics on to you.
»» Nucleus, in addition to its role in inheritance, acts as control center of the activities of the cell.
»» The entire content of a living cell is known as protoplasm [cytoplasm + nucleus]. It includes the
cytoplasm and the nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living substance of the cell.
»» The nucleus of the bacterial cell is not well organized like the cells of multicellular organisms. There
is no nuclear membrane.
»» Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate from the external environment.
»» Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical activities
to support their complicated structure and function.
»» To keep these activities of different kinds separate from each other, these cells use membrane-bound
little structures (or ‘organelles’) within themselves.
7. Ribosomes :
»» Ribosomes are significant cytoplasmic organelles that are not membrane-bound and are found in close
proximity to the endoplasmic reticulum. Either the endoplasmic reticulum encloses ribosomes or they
are freely dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
»» They are made of proteins and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Protein synthesis, which ensures the life of the
cell, is the primary function of the ribosomes in all live cells.
8. Mitochondria :
»» Mitochondria are known as the powerhouse of the cell.
»» The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in the
form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules.
»» [If Mitochondria is the Power Plant. ATP is the Electricity].
»» ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
»» The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
»» Mitochondria have two membrane coverings instead of just one.
»» The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds create a
large surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions.
»» Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins [ribosomes prepare proteins].
9. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) :
»» The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network or reticulum of minute tubular structures dispersed
throughout the cytoplasm. They are the cell’s transport system and are responsible for moving materials
around the cell.
»» Hence, the ER separates the intracellular space into two different compartments, namely the luminal
(inside the ER) and extraluminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
The endoplasmic reticulum’s variations include :

»» Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) : Rough endoplasmic reticulum refers to endoplasmic

reticulum with ribosomes on its surfaces. RER is typically seen in cells that are actively producing and
secreting proteins. They overlap the outer membrane of the nucleus and are thick and continuous.
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»» Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) : Smooth endoplasmic reticulum seems smooth surface when
there are no ribosomes present. The principal location for lipid synthesis is the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. Steroid hormones that resemble lipids are produced in animal cells by the SER.
10. Golgi Apparatus :
»» It is a membrane-bound organelle made up primarily of cisternae, which are a series of flattened,
stacked pouches. The number of cisternae in a Golgi complex varies. Transporting, altering, and
packing proteins and lipids to specific locations are the main duties of this cell organelle.
»» The Golgi apparatus is a key location of glycoprotein and glycolipid synthesis.
11. Lysosomes :
»» They are membrane-bound vesicular structures that are the result of the Golgi apparatus’s packaging
process. It has been discovered that the isolated lysosomal vesicles are extremely rich in nearly all
hydrolytic enzyme types (hydrolases – lipases, proteases, and carbohydrates), which are most active at
the acidic pH. These enzymes can break down lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
»» It helps to digest dead and damaged cells, aids in digestion, and eliminates waste. As a result, it is also
known as “suicidal bags”.
12. Vacuoles :
»» The membrane-bound area in the cytoplasm is known as the vacuole.
»» It contains water, sap, excretory product, and other components that are not beneficial to the cell.
Vacuoles eventually dispose of the waste products. As a result, the rest of the cell is safe from
contamination.
»» Tonoplast is the name of the solitary membrane that surrounds the vacuole.
»» The number and size of vacuoles differ between animal and plant cells.
»» The vacuoles in plant cells are larger than those in animal cells. In plant cells, vacuoles have the
potential to occupy up to 90% of the total cell volume.
13. Plastids :
»» You might have noticed several small colored bodies in the cytoplasm of the cells of Tradescantia leaf.
They are scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf cells. These are called plastids.
»» They are of different colours. Some of them contain green pigment called chlorophyll. Green coloured
plastids are called chloroplasts. They provide green colour to the leaves.
»» Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.
»» Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll.
»» Plastids are present only in plant cells.
There are two types of plastids –

»» chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).

»» Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and protein granules are
stored.
»» The internal organization of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in a material
called the stroma.
»» Plastids are similar to mitochondria in external structure. Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their
own dna and ribosomes.

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14. Stem Cells :
»» Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially
differentiated cells in multicellular animals
that can specialize into many types of
cells and multiply endlessly to produce
additional stem cells.
15. Classifications Of Organisms :
»» Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more
scientific basis for classification.
»» He used simple morphological characters to
classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
»» He also divided animals into two groups, those which had red blood and those that did not.
»» The technique of classifying organisms is known as Taxonomy.
1. Taxonomic Category : There are seven main taxonomic ranks: kingdom, phylum or division,
class, order, family, genus, species.
• Kingdom : The kingdom is the highest level of classification, with subcategories at other
levels.
• Phylum : Phylum is the classification of Living Organism to find some kind of physical
similarities among organisms within the Kingdom. For example: Phylum Arthropoda Under
Kingdom Animalia.
• Class : A class is a rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. Each class is split
into orders.
• Order : It is a group of organisms above taxa Family, sharing a similar set of characters. For
example: order primates contain human and other mammals having a similar character that is
having mammary glands to feed young ones.
• Family : It is a taxonomic group containing one or more genus sharing a common set of
characters.
• Genus : Condensed group of related species having similar characters in common.
• Species : Its basic unit of classification. For example: Homo Sapiens.
»» Two Kingdom systems of classification with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms were developed that
included all plants and animals respectively. This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes
and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms.
16. Five Kingdom Classification :
»» R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom
Classification. The kingdoms defined by him
were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.
1. Kingdom Monera :
• Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom
Monera. They are the most abundant
microorganisms.
• Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they

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synthesize their own food from inorganic substrates.

• They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic.
• The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e They depend on other organisms or on dead
organic matter for food.
• Example : Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows and
buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these
animals.
• The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cells
known and can survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants.
2. Kingdom Protista :
• All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista.
• Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
• The protist cell body contains a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
3. Kingdom Fungi:
• Fungi are multicellular, with a cell wall it is made up of Chitin, organelles including a nucleus, but
no chloroplasts.
• They have no mechanisms for locomotion.
• Mushroom Belongs to this Phylum. They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous
(growing on dung).
4. Kingdom Plantae:
• Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll- containing organisms commonly called
plants.
• A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites.
• Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a parasite.
• The plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and cell walls mainly
made of cellulose.
5. Animal Kingdom:
• This kingdom is characterized by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and
their cells lack cell walls.
• They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
• Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
17. Classification Of Plant Kingdom :
1. Algae:

• Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both freshwater and marine)
organisms.
• They occur in a variety of other habitats : moist stones, soils and wood.
• Some of them also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals. (For Example: on sloth
bear).
• Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways.
• At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through
photosynthesis.

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• Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment.
• For example : Chlorella, a unicellular alga rich in proteins, is used as a food supplement even by
space travellers.
2. Bryophytes:

• Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts that are found commonly growing in moist
shaded areas in the hills.
• Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil
but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
• They lack true roots, stems or leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures.
• Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some mosses provide food for
herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.
• Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel, and as packing material
for trans- shipment of living material because of their capacity to hold water.
3. Pteridophytes:

• Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil- binders.

• They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.
• Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem.
4. Gymnosperms:

• The gymnosperms (gymnos : naked, sperma : seeds) are plants in which the ovules are not enclosed
by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both before and after fertilisation.
• The seeds that develop post-fertilisation, are not covered, i.e., are naked.
• Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrubs
• Roots in some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some
others (Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2 - fixing
cyanobacteria.
• Fruits and vegetables continue their metabolic activity after harvest. Metabolic Activity is
manifested by respiration. Reduction of temperature is an effective means of reducing the rate of
respiration.
5. Angiosperms:

• They are also called Flowering plants.

• The pollen grains and ovules are developed in specialised structures called flowers.
• The male sex organ in a flower is the stamen.
• Each stamen consists of a slender filament with anther at the tip.
• The female sex organ in a flower is the pistil. Pistil consists of a swollen ovary at its base, a long
slender style and stigma.
• In angiosperms, the seeds are enclosed in fruits. The angiosperms are an exceptionally large group
of plants occurring in a wide range of habitats.

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18. Classification Of Animals:

1. Phylum – Porifera:

• Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges. They are generally marine and mostly
asymmetrical animals.
• Most species are marine, and they range in size from a few millimeters to a few meters.
• Sponges are filter feeders : They filter out food particles suspended in the surrounding water as
they draw it through their body. Sponges have a water transport or canal system. Sponges lack
tissues.
• The body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
• Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), i.e., eggs and sperms are produced by the same individual.
2. Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria):

• They are aquatic, mostly marine, sessile or free-swimming.

• The name cnidaria is derived from the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes.
• Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey.
• Cnidarians exhibit tissue level of organization and are diploblastic
• Example : All coral reefs. Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone).
3. Phylum – Platyhelminthes:

• Phylum– Platyhelminthes commonly known as Flatworms.

• These are mostly endoparasites found in animals including human beings.
• Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate animals with organ level of
organisation.

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• Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.

• Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
• Example : Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke).
4. Phylum – Aschelminthes:

• Phylum – Aschelminthes commonly called Roundworms.

• They may be free living, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.
• Roundworms have organ-system level of body organisation.
• Males and females are distinct. Often females are longer than males.
• Example : Ascaris (Roundworm), Wuchereria (Filarial worm), Ancylostoma (Hookworm).
5. Phylum – Annelida :

• They may be aquatic (marine and freshwater) or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes parasitic.
They exhibit organ-system level of body organisation.
• Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres and, hence, the phylum
name Annelida.
• Their excretory and osmoregulatory organ is called Nephridia.
• Examples : Pheretima (Earthworm) and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech).
6. Phylum – Arthropoda :

• This is the largest phylum of Animalia which includes insects. Over two-thirds of all named species
on earth are arthropods.
• The body of arthropods is covered by a chitinous exoskeleton.
• Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
• Circulatory system is of open type.
• Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple) statocysts or balancing organs are
present.
• Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
• Examples : Economically important insects – Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer
(Lac insect) Vectors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes (Mosquitoes) Gregarious pest – Locusta
(Locust) Living fossil – Limulus (King crab).
7. Phylum – Mollusca:

• This is the second largest animal phylum.

• Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic (marine or freshwater) having an organ-system level of
organisation.
• Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular foot and
visceral hump.
• Example : Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia (Cuttlefish).
8. Phylum – Echinodermata:

• These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles and, hence, the name Echinodermata.
• All are marine with organ-system level of organisation.
• The most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the presence of a water vascular system which helps
in locomotion, capture and transport of food and respiration.
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• An excretory system is absent.

• Example : Asterias (Star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin), Cucumaria (Sea cucumber).
9. Phylum – Chordata :

• Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterized by the presence of a

notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
• Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata, Cephalo-chordata and
Vertebrata.

19. Division Of Cell and Cell Cycle :

»» Cell division happens when a parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. All cells reproduce by splitting into two, where
each parental cell gives rise to two daughter cells.These newly formed daughter cells could themselves
divide and grow, giving rise to a new cell population that is formed by the division and growth of a
single parental cell and its descendant.
»» In other words, such cycles of growth and division allow a single cell to form a structure consisting of
millions of cells.
Types of Cell Division

• There are two distinct types of cell division out of which the first one is vegetative division, wherein
each daughter cell duplicates the parent cell called mitosis. The second one is meiosis, which
divides into four haploid daughter cells.
• Mitosis : The process cells use to make exact replicas of themselves. Mitosis is observed in almost
all the body’s cells, including eyes, skin, hair, and muscle cells.
• Meiosis : In this type of cell division, sperm or egg cells are produced instead of identical daughter
cells as in mitosis.
• Binary Fission : Single-celled organisms like bacteria replicate themselves for reproduction.

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Phases of the Cell Cycle

There are two primary phases in the cell cycle:

»» Interphase : This phase was thought to represent the resting stage between subsequent cell divisions,
but new research has shown that it is a very active phase.
»» M Phase (Mitosis phase) : This is where the actual cell division occurs. There are two key steps in this
phase, namely cytokinesis and karyokinesis.
»» The interphase further comprises three phases :
• G0 Phase (Resting Phase) : The cell neither divides nor prepares itself for the division.
• G1 Phase (Gap 1) : The cell is metabolically active and grows continuously during this phase.
• S phase (Synthesis) : The DNA replication or synthesis occurs during this stage.
• G2 phase (Gap 2) : Protein synthesis happens in this phase.
• Quiescent Stage (G0) : The cells that do not undergo further division exits the G1 phase and enters
an inactive stage. This stage is known as the quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
There are four stages in the M Phase, namely:
»» Prophase »» Anaphase
»» Metaphase »» Telophase
20. Chromosomal Basis Of Inheritance :.
Who discovered chromosomes?

»» Carl Wilhelm von Nageli, a Swiss botanist discovered chromosomes and he was a first person to study
about the cell divisions
What is the chromosomal theory of inheritance?

»» It is the fundamental theory of genetics which recognizes chromosomes as the carriers of genetic
material.
Who proposed the chromosomal theory of inheritance?

»» Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton are the two scientists who were credited with developing the
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance.
What is Mutations?

»» The mutation is defined as the change or the permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the
genome of an organism.

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Below are the observations of this theory :

»» During the process of cell division-meiosis, the pairs of homologous chromosome move as discrete
structures, which are independent of other pairs of chromosomes.
»» There is a random distribution of chromosomes into the pre-gametes from each homologous pair.
»» Each parent synthesizes gametes, which constitute only half of their chromosomal complement.
»» Even though female (egg) and male (sperm) gametes differ in their size and morphology, they have the
same number of chromosomes, submitting equal genetic contributions from each parent.
»» The gametic chromosomes fuse during fertilization to produce offspring with the same number of a
chromosome as their parents.
21. Molecular Basis Of Inheritance:
»» Genetics mainly deals with the study of genes, heredity, and genetic variation. Genes exist on
chromosomes and chromosomes are comprised of DNA and proteins.
»» DNA is a molecule that carries genetic information in all living organisms and viruses where it is used
in reproduction, functioning, growth, and development.
»» It is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
DNA :

• DNA is a double-helical
structure that carries all
the genetic information. Its
length is determined by the
number of nucleotide pairs
present in it.
• It is an acidic substance
in the nucleus identified
by Friedrich Meischer. Its
double helical structure was
given by Watson and Crick.
Structure :

• DNA is made up of 6 molecular structures that comprise of one phosphate molecule and five
carbon sugar termed deoxyribose.
• A nucleotide is a basic building block of DNA. A nucleotide is comprised of one of the 4 bases, one
sugar molecule, and one phosphate molecule.
• A sugar-phosphate chain act as a backbone and bases are on the inside. Nucleotide subunits are
linked together to form a DNA strand thus providing polar stability.
• The three-dimensional structure of DNA arises from chemical and structural features of 2
polynucleotide chain.
• A purine base pairs up with pyrimidine base. For instance guanine pairs with cytosine. So the two
strands that are held together by a hydrogen bond are complementary to each other and they run in
the antiparallel direction.
Central Dogma :

• The central dogma was proposed by Crick. The central dogma states that the DNA is converted into

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RNA and the RNA is converted into proteins.

• In retroviruses, the flow of information is opposite, i.e., RNA to DNA to mRNA to Protein.
DNA Packaging :

• The negatively charged DNA is packaged by surrounding the positively charged histone octamer.
A structure called nucleosome is formed. The DNA is packed in chromatin of eukaryotes.
DNA Replication :

• DNA is self-replicative. It occurs in the S-phase of the life cycle. It takes only a few minutes
in prokaryotes but hours in eukaryotes. DNA undergoes semi-conservative replication, i.e.,
two strands of DNA are formed. One strand is the same as one of the strands while the other is
complementary to the parent strand. The replication occurs in 5′-3′ direction.
RNA :

• Ribonucleic acid or RNA is a vital molecule with a long chain of nucleotides. It is the first genetic
material. A nucleotide chain comprises a phosphate, a ribose sugar, and nitrogenous base. RNA
acts as a catalyst and as genetic material. There are two types of RNA, that is genetic and non-
genetic.
Genetic Code :

»» The genetic code can be defined as a set of rules wherein the information encoded in genetic materials
are translated into proteins by living cells. The code defines how codons specify which amino acids
will be added next during protein synthesis.
»» The frequency of codon is termed as codon usage bias. It varies from species to species in terms of
functional implications for the control of translation.
»» The genetic code can also be defined as a relationship between the sequence of amino acids in a
nucleotide chain of mRNA or DNA and amino acid in a polypeptide chain.
»» Nearly twenty types of amino acids participate in protein synthesis. Sixty-one codons out of sixty-four
codons code only for amino acids. The characteristics of the genetic code are stated below:
Degeneracy of genetic code.

• Non-overlapping.
• Universality.
• Triplet in nature.
• Comma-less.
• Non-ambiguous.

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 2. Biotechnology

What is DNA?
DNA can be looked at in two ways :
1. As code of life
2. As vehicle of heredity
DNA AS CODE OF LIFE :

»» DNA is called the code of life as it holds the complete instruction set for building life.
»» The code is present in the nucleus of every cell of every living organism (with few exceptions like
RBC, neuron etc).
»» The code, present in the nucleus, is read by a host of machineries in the cell to build proteins which are
the building blocks of life. (more on this below)
»» Proteins constitutes 55% of the dry mass of cell. Everything from structure of the cell to enzymes are
made of proteins.
»» Further if we zoom in, we find that the total DNA material in humans is arranged as smaller anageable
pieces.
WHAT IS CHROMOSOME?

»» The smaller manageable pieces of DNA have arranged themselves as linear strands each of which is
called a chromosome.
»» There are 23 different chromosomes in human DNA. In addition, there are 2 version of 23 chromosomes.
(one set of 23 inherited from each parent).
»» Thus, in total there are 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of every cell if our body.
»» Imprinting : Each chromosome holds the memory of which parent it is inherited from through a
process called imprinting.
WHAT IS GENOME?
»» The complete set of all DNA material or genetic material is called the genome of that organism. DNA
»» Note that way we have used the term DNA is more as a generic name.
»» DNA is really a complex molecule that make up the instruction for building life.
BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA

»» DNA stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid or in short nucleic acid or nucleotide which are the building
blocks of genetic material.
Each nucleotide has 3 parts

1. A nitrogen base 2. A phosphate group 3. Sugar molecule

SHAPE OF DNA :
»» It looks like a twisted ladder. (called fancily as doublehelix)
»» It is the molecules the genetic is made of and the way they are arranged that gives it its structure and
consequent function.
»» If you think of DNA as a ladder, the phosphate group and sugar molecule make the sides of the ladder

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acting as its backbone.

»» Thus, it is commonly called sugarphosphate backbone.
»» As the name suggests it acts only as backbone. to hold the rungs of the ladder.
»» The nitrogen bases constitute the rungs of the ladder which is where the real code of life is written.
»» Further the ladder has 2 sides to it, each side made of a nitrogen base, sugar and phosphate.
»» Two rungs (nitrogen base) from each side come together to make the ladder as shown in the figure.
»» Each side with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogen base (rung) of the ladder is called one strand.
»» This makes human DNA a double-stranded structure. (there are single-stranded DNA also).
»» Further this ladder is spiraled and spiraled to form a twisted structure.
BASE PAIR :

»» If the entire set of genetic

material(genome) is considered to be
a book, nitrogen bases are the letters.
»» There are 4 types of bases namely
adenosine, guanine, cytosine and
thymine. Simply, there are 4 letters to
the book A, G, C and T.
»» Two strands come together due to
joining of bases.
»» The bases join one another depending
on their shapes. (You can’t put square
boxes in round holes)
»» Accordingly, A always pairs with T
and G always pairs with C. (So if you
know one strand you know what’s on
the other)
»» Note: While in nature only 4 lettered-DNA is found,scientists have recently created a synthetic DNA
with 8 letters.
»» The human genome is made of 3 billion base pairs. (So total 6 billion bases)
»» Simply there are 3 billion letters in the book of life for humans.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA :

»» In addition to DNA in the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria.
»» This we inherit from only our mothers. (more on this later) RNA
»» While DNA encodes instructions to build life, RNA molecule read and act on the information.
»» It simply copies the instruction and carry it to other parts of the cells to make proteins.
»» Recent understanding has shown RNA has much bigger role than acting as a messenger. (more on this
later)
»» In terms of molecule, the only difference in RNA is an extra OH group which makes is unstable.
»» Thus, the major difference between DNA and RNA is that while DNA is more permanent RNA is not
permanent.

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CENTRAL DOGMA :

»» The central dogma of molecular biology

explains the how genetic information
flows from DNA to proteins.
»» This simply describes how the code of
life is brought to life.
»» This happens in two-stages called
transcription and translation.
»» In short DNA is transcribed into RNA
which is then read by ribosome to make
Proteins which are the buildingblocks of
life.
»» Note : that advancements in biotechnology coincide with the increased understanding of the central
dogma.
CENTRAL DOGMA (COOKBOOK ANALOGY) :

»» Consider DNA to be a cookbook of recipes for making proteins. Transcription is the process of
photocopying the recipe. This is done by mRNA, short for messenger RNA, inside the nucleus.
»» Once copied the recipe mRNA goes outside the nucleus to the chef, called ribosome.
»» There is also a translator, tRNA who translates mRNA recipe to rRNA of the ribosome which then
makes amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.
»» A block of 3 letters in the mRNA correspond to ‘cooking’ of 1 amino acid.
»» Each 3-letter base in mRNA that is read by tRNA that correspond to one amino acid is called ‘codon’.
»» Many amino acids come together to form the primary structure
of protein.
»» The primary structure is twisted and folded to make a 3-d
structure of protein.
GENE :

»» After the results of Human Genome Project were published in

2001, it was understood that only 1.5% of the total genome (3
billion base pairs) in humans was coding for proteins.
»» The coding part of protein are called as genes.
»» According to recent understanding there are about 20500 genes

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in human genome.
»» Genes vary in complexity.
»» They range in size from few hundred bases to more than 2 million.
»» 98% of the genome is non-coding regions.
EPIGENETICS: IT’S ALL ABOUT GENE EXPRESSION :

»» For long we thought the non-coding regions of the genome (98%) to be ‘dark area’ or ‘Junk DNA’.
This is no more the case.
»» They play a huge role in gene expression which has become an important area of study in the recent
times called epigenetics.
»» Epigenetics deals with the processes that control how the genes are expressed.
»» We know that all the cells in our body have the same genome.
»» Further there are 37 trillion cells that are about 200 different types and same code (genome) exists in
the nucleus of all these cells.
»» If the same code is there in all the cells, how is it that there are 220-odd cell types making up for 4
different tissue types and 78 different organ types all working in unison to make human life possible.
»» The answer is in gene expression.
»» Different genes are expressed in different cells that perform different function that look differently.
(like your heart cell and your kidney cell)
»» All this relates to gene regulation. There are different ways in which gene is regulated for expression.
INTRONS, EXONS AND RNA SPLICING :

»» As we have seen mRNA is a copy of only the coding part of DNA (gene).
»» And the coding part do not occur on chromosome in one single sequence as one whole.

»» It is spread out on a chromosome in parts. Each part is separated by a non-coding part of the genome.
»» In fact, 25% of all the non-coding part occur in between genes.
»» The non-coding part between gene is called introns and the coding part that mRNA is interested in are
called exons.
»» So, mRNA must copy only exons and cut out all the introns.
»» This cutting of introns to join only exons is called RNA splicing.
»» The final mRNA after splicing of introns is called exome (which represents only 1.5% of the genome).
»» As you can appreciate it is this final mRNA after splicing that is important for coding for protein.

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REGULATION DURING TRANSCRIPTION (DNA " mRNA) :

»» As we have seen transcription happens in the nucleus and only 1.5% of the genome codes for proteins.
»» So, mRNA needs to copy only the coding part of the genome.
»» Also, mRNA has to copy only a particular gene or set of genes depending on which cell it is acting in.
»» In order to transcribe mRNA uses an enzyme called RNA polymerase.
»» But how does it know what part of the genome to transcribe and when to start and stop the copying
mechanism?
»» This is where regulatory factors of epigenetics come into picture
PROMOTER REGION :

»» These are non-coding part of the genome which has proteins that attract RNA polymerase to the required
coding part of the genome.
»» Start and Stop signals
»» Besides there are regions in the genome that act like traffic signals for starting and stopping transcription.
POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION :

»» Regulation during translation (mRNA"Protein)

»» Translation, as we have seen, involves reading of mRNA by tRNA in the ribosome (protein making
factories).
»» tRNA reads 3 letters at a time which translates into one amino acid, the building blocks of protein.
»» t-RNA simply brings amino acids that are lying in the cell after reading 3 letters of mRNA(codon).
»» As in case of transcription there should be some way for tRNA to know when to start and stop reading
codons.
»» These are called Start Codon and Stop Codon respectively.
DNA AS VEHICLE OF HEREDITY :

»» Long before we understood the nature of DNA and its role as code of life, we discovered nucleus has
units of heredity that are responsible for passing on traits from one generation to another.
»» Mendel’s experiments with plants in his garden led to set of laws describing the laws of inheritance.
»» The important result of this experiment was that traits passed on from one generation to another as
discreet units.
»» DNA as a vehicle of heredity is passed from one generation to another during gamete formation and
subsequent fertilization of gametes.
MEIOSIS: THE MAGIC BEHIND HEREDITY -

»» Meiosis in simple words is a story of how traits that make up an individual are assembled when the sex
cells of his/her parent generated the sex cells/germline cells (sperm and egg).
»» All that an individual is made of is, but an expression of the genetic matter donated by parents to the
subsequent generation.
»» When germline cells are produced in the body of parents, the 2 sets of chromosomes come together,
cross-over and mix up randomly in process called meiosis.
»» During meiosis chromosomes of the same type are lined up. When two versions of the same type
chromosome line up, parts of the chromosome can be switched as shown in the figure.
»» Imagine this cross over and recombination happening across all chromosomes.

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»» This is what gives genetic variation to sex cells (gametes) and thence to offspring.
»» This genetic variation is what gives diversity to a species which is very important to adapt to the
environment and evolution.
»» When gametes come together to form a zygote during fertilization genetic diversity of both gametes
are carried.
MITOSIS AND DIFFERENTIATION: HOW DID YOU BECOME
A COMPLEX ORGANISM FROM A SINGLE CELL?
»» Mitosis and differentiation put together is the story of how one becomes a complex organism all the
way from being a single cell called zygote.
»» Mitosis is the process of cell division which is what drives growth of organisms.
»» The first step of cell division is DNA replication where a copy of DNA is made.
»» This happens through 2-step process of unwinding and rebuilding.
»» We have already seen the bases the make up the core of DNA pair in correspondence, meaning A
always pairs with T and vice versa and G always pairs with C and vice versa.
»» Under this process the double stranded DNA first unzips like a zip into single strands. This is done by
an enzyme called helicase.
»» Then another enzyme called DNA Polymerase synthesize each of the single strand into 2 double
stranded DNA.
»» In the process mistakes are made and thus we also have an inbuilt proof-reading mechanism.
»» Once DNA is replicated other components of the cell get distributed forming 2 daughter cells. 2 becomes
4, 4 becomes 8, 8 becomes 16 and the chain reaction is set.
»» Humans on an average have about 37 trillion cells in our body.
DIFFERENTIATION :

»» We have seen that same DNA is there in nucleus of all cells.

»» how did we develop into heart, brain, liver, kidney, lungs, limbs etc that came together in such
sophistication to form a fully functional organism?
»» In total there are about 220 different cell types that make up 4 types of tissues and 78 types of organs,
all working in unison to make a complex organism like human possible. How?
»» The answer lies in differentiation.
»» From its journey from zygote to complex organism cells undergo continuous division(mitosis) and
differentiation.
»» After the zygote is formed it undergoes division through the process of mitosis.
»» Becomes 2 cells in 30 hours after fertilization, 4 cells in 60 hours after fertilization and at the end of 6
days become blastocyst, a hollow ball of about 100 cells.
»» Then the 1st differentiation starts.
»» Blastocyst grow into two types of cells which make inner mass of cells and outer mass of cells.
»» The inner mass is embryo which develops into a whole organism.
»» The outer mass is placenta which acts as the barrier between mother and fetus.
»» At about 3rd week different tissues start to differentiate into organs.
• 4th week - heart, eyes begin to form, 10th week - heartbeat is audible, 2nd month - limbs start to
develop, 3rd month - liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

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»» One way of classifying cells is based on their ability to differentiate. Broadly cells are of two types,
differentiated and undifferentiated.
»» Differentiated cells are the building blocks of tissues and organs. They are specialized cells that can
only divide. They cannot differentiate. They are also called somatic cells or simply adult cells. Eg: Hair
cell, nail cell etc.
»» Undifferentiated cells are cells that have the ability differentiate into many different types of cells. They
are classified into two types, namely embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
STEM CELLS :

»» Undifferentiated cells are also called stem cells.

»» Further stem cells are classified into various types based on their potency to differentiate.

»» PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS OR EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS :

• These are stem cells that are potent enough to differentiate into all types of cells.
• In short, they can produce a clone of an entire organism.
• Such cells are found in the embryo stage of human development. (inner mass cells)
• Thus, they are also called embryonic stem cells.
MULTIPOTENT STEM CELLS OR ADULT STEM CELLS :

»» Such cells have the potential to all types of cells associated with a particular organ or a tissue.
»» They help in repair, renew and maintenance of tissues or organs in an adult body. Thus, they are called
adult stem cells.
»» Eg: Intestinal stem cells (renew every 45 days), cells in bone marrow etc.

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GENE EXPRESSION BEHIND DIFFERENTIATION :

»» Since all cells have the same DNA in their nucleus how is it that one is pluripotent another multi-potent
and another has no ability to differentiate?
»» Answer lies in gene expression.
»» We now know that there are 4 transcription factors that are responsible for embryonic stem cells as
compared to specialized adult cells. (details not important)
»» Thus, if we can somehow reprogram specialized cells (somatic cells) to tweak the transcriptional
factors, it can reverse into embryonic stem cells.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA AND NUCLEAR DNA :

»» The DNA we have been referring to is the DNA that is present in the nucleus
»» In addition to DNA in the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria.
»» During fertilization it is the nuclear DNA (with 46 chromosomes) that is formed where 23 chromosomes
is inherited from the mother and 23 from the dad.
»» Mitochondrial DNA only has one chromosome and it codes for only specific proteins responsible for
metabolism.
»» It is the nuclear DNA that is responsible for inheritance (from both father and mother).
»» Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother and thus it is more effective to trace human
ancestry.

THREE PARENT BABY :

»» Apart from receiving the usual “nuclear” DNA from its mother and father, the embryo would also
include a small amount of healthy mitochondrial DNA from a woman donor.
»» This is resorted to when the actual mother is suffering from an incurable mitochondrial disease.
»» This technique involves removing the faulty mitochondrial DNA from the actual mother and nucleus

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form the mother’s egg and the resultant egg fertilizes with the sperm cell of the father outside the body
(in-vitro).

RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY: BIRTH OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

BIRTH OF R-DNA :

»» Recombinant DNA is a form of DNA constructed in the laboratory. It is generated by transferring

selected pieces of DNA from one organism to another.
»» By 1970s we had understood the structure of DNA and central dogma. However, this was only
theoretical. We could not separate a part of DNA which was coding forprotein. In short, we did not
know how to get access to DNA in order to change it.
»» Incidentally in 1970s we understood how viruses work. Viruses get into the host cell and convert it into
virusproducing factories.
»» To do this they get into the host cell nucleus, insert their genome in the genome of host cell.
»» The discovery of the action of a virus, that was affecting bacteria, led to development of R-DNA
technology.
»» In order to do this the virus (bacteriophage) had to do the following
1. Identify a place to cut the bacterial genome
2. Cut it
3. Paste itself
4. Make the new genome express itself in the bacterial cell.
»» If we copied what the virus was doing, we have a way to ‘stich’ together DNA from 2 different sources.
This is how R-DNA was born.
R-DNA TECHNOLOGY: MANIPULATING THE CODE OF LIFE :

»» The basic steps in R-DNA are as follows:

»» Identify the organism that has the gene of interest (one that expresses for desired trait, say production
of Vitamin A in daffodil)
»» Identify the target organism (To fortify rice with Vit A to make it Golden Rice)
»» Take the organism that has the desired trait and cut it into pieces like a shredder. (daffodil genome)
»» You can use enzymes restriction enzymes to cut a genome. (but this is cutting blindly, we did not know
where we were cutting)
»» Insert these pieces into a vector (vehicle to carry the genome to target organism)
»» Find the vector with gene of interest (this is like finding the needle in a haystack, very tedious)
»» Take the vector with gene of interest and multiply into colonies of the vector (gene that expresses for

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Vit A) : This is called C-DNA library or gene library.

»» Take the colony of vector with gene of interest and insert it in rice genome. (Pasting) This is done by
an enzyme called DNA integrase (similar to what virus was doing).
»» The resultant rice with gene from daffodil will be a recombinant DNA.
»» This is how golden rice is made using R-DNA technology.
VECTORS USED IN R-DNA TECHNOLOGY :

»» Plasmid: Small circular pieces of DNA that is capable of replicating.

»» Bacterial use plasmids to transfer anti-biotic resistance to the same generation.
»» independently of chromosomal DNA of bacteria and that they could transfer genetic information.
»» It was this process that gave host bacteria the capacity to inherit new genes and therefore new functions
such as resistance to antibiotics.
»» Alternately we can use bacteriophages (virus that infects bacteria), artificial chromosomes of yeast and
bacteria as vectors in r-DNA technology.
SCOPE OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY R-DNA AND HEALTH :

»» Human insulin, was the 1st therapeutic proteins to be genetically cloned in E.coli using R-DNA
technology
»» Mono-clonal antibodies are made using R-DNA technology
»» Production of vaccines against Hepatitis B
»» Backbone of hepatitis and HIV diagnostic tests.
»» Protein therapies such as human insulin, interferon and human growth hormone.
»» Produce clotting factors for treating haemophilia.
GM CROPS
»» Transgenic plants are those that have been genetically modified using recombinant DNA technology.
Genetic modification is done to confer a particular trait to the plant with one of the following
properties :

»» Increased yield of a crop

»» Increased nutritional content of a crop
»» Developing resistance to
• Abiotic stresses like temperature, salinity or herbicide-resistant
• Biotic stresses like insect-resistant crops.
»» BT cotton is the only genetically modified crop that is commercially allowed in India from 2002.
REGULATION OF GM CROPS IN INDIA :

»» GMOs and the products thereof are regulated under the “Rules for the manufacture, use, import, export
& storage of hazardous microorganisms, genetically engineered organisms or cells, 1989” under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
»» The rules include within its purview all molecular genetics techniques including R-DNA, gene editing
techniques, gene drive etc.
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK :

»» The rules are enforced by the MOEFCC, DBT and State Governments.

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»» GM Crops – Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee under MoEF is the final approval authority for
allowing GM crops in fields including field trials.
»» It also includes approval for commercial cultivation of GM crops.
»» GEAC is also responsible for certification of GM organisms.
»» Besides food has been moved out of Regulation of Genome Engineering Technologies recently.
»» Accordingly Food Safety and Standards Authority of India regulates manufacture, storage, distribution,
sale and import GM food in India.
GM CROPS: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS :

»» Bt Crops : Mechanism: Importance of bacillus thuringiensis The soil-dwelling bacteria Bacillus

thuringiensis produce spores containing crystals that are poisonous to insect’s digestive system (its
gut) but harmless to the crop plants and to people. Thus, all Bt crops involve inserting a gene from soil
bacteria to the plant to make it express a crystal that kill the insect by attacking its digestive tract.
»» Bt cotton : Resistance to bollworm pest Only GM crop allowed in India
»» Bt brinjal : is genetically engineered by inserting a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
for its insecticidal property. Since 2010 there is an indefinite moratorium on commercial cultivation of
Bt Brinjal in India.
»» HTBT Cotton : Short for Herbicide Resistant Bt Cotton The cotton seed is inserted with gene from
a soil bacterium. This produces a modified protein glyphosate which makes it herbicide resistant.
Problem with Glyphosate Glyphosate is a herbicide used in cotton fields which is known to be harmful
to soil and also classified as ‘probable human carcinogen’ by WHO. Besides glyphosate also impacts
honeybee gut microbiome thereby affecting pollination.
»» GM Mustard(DMH11) : Dhara Mustard Hybrid Recently GEAC approved GM mustard for
commercial use the first genetically modified crop in the country to get approval in two decades.
GM Mustard - Transgenic hybrid variety.
»» Under normal conditions mustard plants do not cross across varieties as they are self-pollinating in
nature.
»» As a result we do not have hybrid varieties of mustard due to which plant-breeders are not able to
induce desired trait in mustard plants. Genetic modification is done to alter the genes of 2 mustard va-
rieties including Varuna and Heera.
»» Genetic modification is done with the help of soil bacteria barnese and barstar which help create hybrid
varieties of mustard.
»» Benefit Increase in yield upto 20-30% Seeks to attain self-sufficiency in edible oil seeds production
Issue The transgenic hybrid variety becomes tolerant to a herbicide called glufosinate-ammonium upon
genetic modification.
»» Herbicides are extensively used in field trials including glyphosate, endosulphan.
»» These will harm honey bee which are the biggest pollinators of mustard field.
»» Golden Rice - Vitamin A 2 genes from daffodil and 1 from bacteria
»» Soybeen, Sugarbeet, Sugarcane, Herbicide tolerant (glyphosate, glufosinate)
»» Edible vaccines A new approach for delivering vaccine is transgenic food crops Eg: A rice-based mu-
cosal vaccine for cholera. Plant-based mRNA vaccines using transgenic lettuce are developed.
»» GM Rubber : Worlds 1st planted in Assam. To make it more tolerant to colder climates as rubber is
native to warm humid amazon forests.

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»» GM Soymeal : India will import GM soymeal for the 1st time to be used as a livestock feed particularly
in the poultry
»» Protato Protein packed GM potato that contains 60% more protein than a wild-type potato.
»» GM bacteria : for nitrogen fixation Genetically modified bacteria are made that copy the action of
Rhizobium to induce the ability of nitrogen fixation in the roots of crops other than legumes.
GENOME SEQUENCING: READING THE CODE OF LIFE :

»» In the earlier approaches to R-DNA technology, the 1st step was to identify the gene of interest.
»» But this was very tedious because we had to cut the entire genome into smaller pieces (like a shredder),
make them express in plasmids and then identify the gene of interest like a needle in the haystack.
»» With genome sequencing this changed. We could identify the exact location of the base pair.
»» Genome sequencing in simple words is reading the entire book of genome letter by letter (base by base).
»» In other words, it is a procedure for determining the linear order of nucleotide bases in DNA.
»» In 1977 the 1st bacteria was sequenced and between 1990-2001 human genome was sequenced for the
1st time.
ADVANCEMENTS IN GENOME SEQUENCING :

»» Short-read : Earlier approach to sequencing was called short read method where the genome was
chopped into small fragments which could be reassembled like a jig-saw puzzle.
»» This approach is also called whole-genome sequencing.
»» In this approach we read 150 bases at a time.
»» Reading short segments of the genome was timeconsuming and labour intensive. Besides codes of
many fragments looked same making it difficult to tell them apart.
»» Long-read : With the use of nanotechnology, we could read longer sequences of the genome. We now
can read 2.3 million base long sequence at once.
»» The number of bases that are sequenced is 10000- times more than short-read. We are now hoping to
read the entire chromosome in one read in times to come.
ADVANTAGES :

»» Faster and cheaper

»» Suitable for identifying pathogens in food, in disease control and diagnosis of infection.
NEXT-GENERATION SEQUENCING :

»» Use of computers read multiple fragments at the same time in an automated process.
»» Making whole-genome sequencing relatively faster, accurate, automated and cheap.
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT :

»» It took 10 long years to read the sequence of human genome.

»» HGP started in 1990 and the result was published in 2001
SIGNIFICANCE OF HGP :

»» Until 2001our understanding was one gene would code for one protein responsible for one trait.
»» With HGP this was revised. We now know there are about 20500 genes coding for 80000-100000
proteins.
»» Also, more than one gene is responsible for one trait.

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»» Only 1.5% of the genome was coding for proteins. Other 98% is the non-coding part.
FINDINGS OF HGP JUNK DNA :

»» Initially we thought it had no role to play and hence it was called ‘Junk DNA’ or ‘dark area of the
genome’.
»» Now we know the so-called dark genome has a significant role in regulating how genes function which
is very important in gene expression.
»» As we have seen DNA"RNA"Protein is not a simple 2- step process but a dynamic one.
»» Also, it is the gene expression that is more important than the gene itself.
CONSTITUENTS OF DARK GENOME :

»» Non-coding part has a significant role in every minute step during transcription and translation, in effect
the dynamic part of gene expression.
»» Recently we have identified the dark genome responsible for bipolar and schizophrenia.
»» Though we still do not have a complete understanding of our genome and our search is on and following
are few important findings about which we know:
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT: WRITE: RECODING THE CODE OF LIFE (IMPORTANT FOR PRELIMS,
2024..)

»» An international project launched in 2016 to synthesise a human genome from scratch. While the
original HGP aimed at “reading” the book of genome, HGP-Write aims at writing the genome.
»» HGP-Write essentially helps in ‘recoding’ our genome for many applications including to alter our
susceptibility to disease, our ability to respond to drugs etc.
ILLUSTRATION :

»» Recently HGP-Write is trying to ‘recode’ human genome to develop immunity to any virus
»» HGP of 2001 revealed there are about 20000 genes coding for 80000-100000 proteins.
»» Besides a set of 3 letter base (codon) codes for 1 amino acid.
»» All the proteins we are familiar with are made of 20 amino acids. But the total number of possible
codons is 64 (4X4X4).
»» Out of the rest 44 many are redundant, meaning they code for same amino acid. For instance, GGT,
GGC, GGA, and GG all code for same amino acid glycine.
»» We know viruses depend on the host cell machinery like tRNA to make its proteins.
»» If you removed all redundant codon and the tRNA machinery that decodes it, viruses would not be able
to translate their genes into proteins.
»» Thus, our recoded cells would be immune from viral attack.
»» This would require at least 400,000 changes to the human genome.
»» IMPORTANT GENOME SEQUENCING EFFORTS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE NAME
SIGNIFICANCE ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements) FANTOM (Functional Annotation of the
Mammalian Genome) Genome sequencing project that has given significant details of the dark area of
genome. Genome India Project Aim is to create reference genome of Indians. Problem with HGP is that
it is majorly sourced from white population because of which diversity is not accounted for. Launched
in 2019 to do wholegenome-sequencing of over a million Indians from diverse ethnic groups.
»» Application : To understand Indian population’s susceptibility to disease and develop precision
medicine and personalized healthcare.

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»» INDIGEN : A research project to understand the genetic diversity of the indigenous population.
of India. Main aim is to gain insights into genetic ancestry and diversity of indigenous population.
Genomic in Indian agriculture
»» Wheat Genome Sequencing Programme
»» Rice Functional Genomics National Plant Gene Repository programme
»» Next Generation Challenge Programme on Chickpea Genomics
»» INDIGAU: Genomics of cow National Genomic Grid
»» Aims to collect cancer cells and tissues to facilitate cancer research in India.
»» Uses genome sequencing of these high-quality cancer cells to study genomic factors influencing cancer
in Indian population.
Earth Biogenome Project :

»» International effort to sequence and digitize the genomes of every eukaryotic biodiversity on Earth over
a period of 10 years.
»» It is an open-source DNA database. Application Planning environmental conservation initiatives. Issue
May lead to digital bio-piracy (because it is open-source) which is against the principle of Nagoya
protocol to convention of Biodiversity that requires sharing of benefits with the local communities.
»» Human Microbiome Project Effort to study the genes of microbes in human body including gut, skin,
oral cavity and vagina to study their role in human health and diseases. Note: Human body contains 10
times as many microbes as human cells.
»» DeepVariant : AI in genomics Google’s AI system that converts sequencing data from highthroughput
sequencing into an accurate picture of the entire genome.
»» This it does by automatically identifying insertions, deletions or any such gaps that are to be filled
AlphaFold Google’s AI system that is capable of predicting protein modelling.
»» Important to understand diseases and corresponding drug development
VARIATIONS IN THE GENOME: IDENTITY MARKERS :

»» Humans are 99.9% identical in genome to one another.

»» But given the size of human genome (3-billion base pairs), even a small (0.1%) proportion of variation
is huge.
»» The variations are very important to decide the complete make-up of an individual including ones eye
colour to ones susceptibility to disease to one’s parentage and even ones ancestry etc. The variation in
the base is called polymorphism.
»» Further variations can be of many types. It could be single base variation, large sequence variation,
variations in the way sequences are structured etc.
»» Study of variations have interesting applications. (see table)
GENE EDITING: CRISPR CAS9: REVOLUTION IN GENETIC ENGINEERING :

PRINCIPLE OF CRISPR :

»» While R-DNA technology developed with our understanding of how virus affected bacteria, CRISPR
developed out of our understanding of how bacteria developed resistance to this virus.
»» CRISPR is nothing but the mechanism of bacterial immune system.

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Working of CRISPR :

»» When a virus infects bacteria, after few generations bacterial immune system develops a way to fight
it back.
»» The bacterial immune system simply cuts the viral genome using an enzyme (restriction enzyme). In
addition, the bacterial immune system keeps a memory of the viral genome in its own genome to ward
off future attacks.
»» This viral genome stored by the bacteria acts as a guide to bacteria during the next viral attack. So it
knows precisely where to cut.
»» The bacteria had repeat patterns of the viral genome interspersed by a 20-base long DNA.
»» It also read the same backwards and forwards.
»» This is why we call the memory of viral genome in bacteria as CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced
Short Palindromic Repeats)
»» Next time the virus attacks bacteria uses this memory, make a RNA molecule that acts as a guide and
Cas 9 enzymes uses this guide RNA to cut the viral genome.
»» In short, while R-DNA involved cutting of genome blindly (like a shredder), CRISPR Cas 9 enables
cutting very precisely.
CRISP-BASED GENE EDITING :

»» Once the RNA-guided Cas9 enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific site, we could make the following
changes o Inserting a new sequence o Deleting the sequence o Modifying the sequence
»» In order to do so the cell can use its natural DNA repair mechanisms (DNA polymerase) to insert a
nucleotide or introduce a new piece of foreign DNA.
»» Based on this criterion of using foreign genome v/s altering native genome in gene editing the end
product could be transgenic or simply genetically modified.
LIMITATION :

»» In CRISPR editing, mutations are corrected by cutting the double strand of the DNA. This could result
in some unintended cuts.
»» As a result, it can cut only large portions of genome and not single letter changes.
»» Additionally, it can induce unintended off-the-target mutations or incomplete edits in some places.
GENETIC ENGINEERING: RECENT ADVANCEMENTS :

1. What all can CRISPR system do? :

GENE EDITING: DNA AND RNA BOTH :

• Both coding and non-coding parts including RNAs (gene expression)

• Initially only DNA was the target, recently RNA is also being modified using CRISPR system.
Conventionally could change a section of DNA (large cuts)
• Now with base editing suitable for single-letter mutations.
• APPLICATION : Gene therapies not only to correct a defective gene but also silence a gene
from expressing or make a gene that was otherwise not expressing to express.
MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS :

• In addition to editing, CRISPR can be used to detect single target DNA or RNA molecule (CRISPR
Cas13)

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• This makes it a sensitive diagnostic tool to detect mutations.

• SHERLOCK : A biological detective that uses CRISPR-Cas13 to detect RNA sequences
associated with diseases like Zika virus and Dengue virus.
2. CRISPR in Gene therapy :
• CRISPR is an emerging choice for gene therapy given its ability to accurately target defective gene,
add a missing gene, alter the defective gene or even augment the genome with a new gene.
• Besides, scientists have demonstrated administration of CRISPR-based gene therapy both invivo
(directly in human body) and ex-vivo (from lab culture to human body).
• CRISPR-based gene therapy is most suitable in mono-genetic diseases in which we can identify
a single gene responsible for the disease trait. Examples of such diseases include Blood-related
disorders like sickle-cell anaemia, beta thalassemia, Haemophilia etc.
• Corneal diseases Degenerative neurological diseases Immunological diseases like HIV, bubble boy
syndrome etc.
• Immune-therapy for cancer (CAR T-cell therapy) Skin diseases.
• Though in a nascent stage it is making rapid strides. Following are some of the recent advancements
Scientists have demonstrated how CRISPR-CAS9 can be used to eliminate HIV in infected mice.
• Gene editing tried in mouse to correct genes involved in muscular dystrophy. Gene editing has been
carried out inside the human body (in-vivo) for the 1st time to treat Hunter’s syndrome.
• US has approved CAR T-cell therapy which involves modifying immune cells to attack cancer
cells in case Leukaemia. In 2021 Department of Biotechnology supported 1st CAR-T cell therapy
was conducted in India.
• Clinical trials for gene therapy for beta thalassemia and sickle cell anaemia is already showing
promising results. 1 st in-vivo administration of gene therapy to modify photoreceptor cells in the
eye to treat blindness was done in 2020.
3. CRISPR in tissue engineering and organ transplantation :

• CRISPR AND CELL THERAPY - CRISPR is increased being used in tissue engineering to
genetically modify pig cells to make them suitable for growing human organs in them.
• Note : Stem cells from humans can be introduced in pigs to grow organs in them as they have a
faster life cycle. Problem was a section of pig genome was known to cause cancer which acted as
a major hurdle in organ transplantation from pigs to humans.
• These cancer-causing genes are editing using CRISPR to silence them.
4. CRISPR in agriculture: GM Crops :

• To engineer crops to increase their nutritional value, pest resistance, drought tolerance etc. Two
techniques namely SDN 1 and 2 technique for gene editing ICAR is using it to produce rice varieties
which are drought-resistant, salinity-resistant and highyielding
CRISPR IN CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE -

»» CRISPR is used in plants to increase their photosynthetic efficiency by upto 25%. Eg: tobacco plants.
»» CRISPR AND BIOFUELS - CRISPR is used to genetically modify microbes like yeast to improve its
efficiency of fermentation and producing ethanol at a faster rate. CRISPR is used to genetically modify
methanogens to improve their performance in biogas production
• Note : Methanogens are microbes that produce methane as a by-product of their metabolism.

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5. GM food :

LAB-GROWN MEAT :

• Cell-based meat that is produced by culturing cells in a lab instead of livestock rearing practices
(major factor in climate change) However the challenge is cell-based meat does not have a suitable
texture and flavour. CRISPR systems are used to genetically modify cells to produce proteins re-
sponsible for texture and flavour.
CLEAN MEAT PROJECT: INDIA
»» The Clean Meat project will be taken up by CCMB and National Research Centre on Meat of ICAR.
Gene edited lab-cultured meat to augment its nutritional content.
INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATION :

• CRISPR is used to genetically modify microbes like yeast used in wine making, baking and brewing
to improve its efficiency of fermentation.

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 3. Health (Diseases and Vaccines)
Topics Covered
1. Human Body 2. Disease
3. Communicable Diseases 4. Antimicrobial Resistance (Amr)
5. Non Communicable Diseases 6. Zoonotic Diseases
7. Basics Of The Immune Systems 8. Antigen
9. Superantigen 10. Anti Bodies
11. Active And Passive Immunity. 12. Vaccine
13. Mrna Based Vaccines 14. Vaccines And Antimicrobial Resistance
15. Allergy 16. Auto Immunity
17. Immunotherapy 18. Stem Cell Therapy

1. Human Body :
What is the digestive system?

»» Your digestive system is a network of organs that help

you digest and absorb nutrition from your food.
»» It includes your gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your
biliary system.
»» Your GI tract is a series of hollow organs that are all
connected to each other, leading from your mouth to
your anus.
»» Your biliary system is a network of three organs that
deliver bile and enzymes through to your GI tract your
bile ducts.
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract :
»» The organs that make up your GI tract, in the order that Fig. Digestive System
they are connected, include your mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
Biliary system :
»» Your biliary system includes your liver, gallbladder, pancreas and bile ducts.
What does the digestive system do?

»» Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to do its job of turning your food into the nutrients and
energy you need to survive.
»» And when it’s done with that, it handily packages your solid waste, or stool, for disposal when you have
a bowel movement.
Why is digestion important?

»» Digestion is important because your body needs nutrients from the food you eat and the liquids you
drink in order to stay healthy and function properly.
»» Nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water.
»» Your digestive system breaks down and absorbs nutrients from the food and liquids you consume to use
for important things like energy, growth and repairing cells.

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What organs make up the digestive system?

»» The main organs that make up your digestive system are the organs known as your gastrointestinal tract.
»» They are : your mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
»» Assisting your GI organs along the way are your pancreas, gallbladder and liver.
»» Here’s how these organs work together in your digestive system.
Mouth :
»» The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even take a bite.
Your salivary glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or warm bread. After you start
eating, you chew your food into pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes with the food
to begin to break it down into a form your body can absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue
passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus.
Esophagus :
»» Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth
when you swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you swallow to
prevent you from choking (when food goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular contractions
within the esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.
»» But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus called the lower esophageal sphincter has
to relax to let the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of the stomach from
flowing back into the esophagus. (When it doesn’t and these contents flow back into the esophagus, you
may experience acid reflux or heartburn.)
Stomach :
»» The stomach is a hollow organ, or “container,” that holds food while it is being mixed with stomach
enzymes. These enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in
the lining of your stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the
breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are processed enough, they’re released into the
small intestine.
Small intestine :
»» Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a 22-foot
long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the
liver.
»» Peristalsis also works in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive juices from the
pancreas and liver.
»» The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible for the continuous
breaking-down process.
»» The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly responsible for the absorption of nutrients into
the bloodstream.
»» Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form after passing through the
organ.
»» Water, bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been
absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on
to the large intestine (colon).

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Pancreas :
»» The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats and
carbohydrates.
»» The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone
in your body for metabolizing sugar.
Liver :
»» The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients
absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an
important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.
»» The liver is your body’s chemical “factory.” It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and
makes all the various chemicals your body needs to function.
»» The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs that
can be toxic to your body.
Gallbladder :
»» The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the duodenum in
the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.
Colon :
»» The colon is responsible for processing waste so that emptying your bowels is easy and convenient. It’s
a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.
»» The colon is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the
descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.
»» Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis,
first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed.
Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a “mass movement” empties it into the rectum once
or twice a day.
»» It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris
and bacteria. These “good” bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various
vitamins, processing waste products and food particles and protecting against harmful bacteria. When
the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the
process of elimination (a bowel movement).
Rectum :
»» The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum’s job is to
receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold
the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a
message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not.
»» If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot
be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily
goes away.
Anus :
»» The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor
muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is able to detect
rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.
»» The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic

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floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when
it’s not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. This
keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping involuntarily) when we are asleep or otherwise unaware
of the presence of stool.
»» When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until
reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.
What is the respiratory system?

»» The respiratory system is the network

of organs and tissues that help you
breathe. It includes your airways, lungs
and blood vessels. The muscles that
power your lungs are also part of the
respiratory system. These parts work
together to amove oxygen throughout
the body and clean out waste gases like
Fig. Respiratory System
carbon dioxide.
Function
What does the respiratory system do?
»» The respiratory system has many functions. Besides helping you inhale (breathe in) and exhale (breathe
out), it:
»» Allows you to talk and to smell.
»» Warms air to match your body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level your body needs.
»» Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
»» Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you exhale.
»» Protects your airways from harmful substances and irritants.
`` Anatomy :
What are the parts of the respiratory system?
»» The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe. Each group of
parts has many separate components.
»» Your airways deliver air to your lungs.
Your airways are a complicated system that includes your :

• Mouth and nose : Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory system.
• Sinuses : Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the temperature and
humidity of the air you inhale.
• Pharynx (throat) : Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe).
• Trachea : Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
• Bronchial tubes : Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung.
• Lungs : Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.
»» From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.
»» Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of the bones
and muscles in the respiratory system include your:

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• Diaphragm : Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.
• Ribs : Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.
»» When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body. Other
components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:
• Alveoli : Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
• Bronchioles : Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
• Capillaries : Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Lung lobes : Sections of the lungs — three lobes in the right lung and two in the left lung.
• Pleura : Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from the chest wall.
»» Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:
• Cilia : Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other irritants out of your
airways.
• Epiglottis : Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow to keep food
and liquids out of your airway.
• Larynx (voice box) : Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds when air moves in
and out.
What is the circulatory system?
»» Your heart and blood vessels make up the
circulatory system.
»» The main function of the circulatory
system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and
hormones to muscles, tissues and organs
throughout your body.
»» Another part of the circulatory system is
to remove waste from cells and organs so
your body can dispose of it.
»» Your heart pumps blood to the body
through a network of arteries and veins
(blood vessels). Fig. Circulatory System
»» Your circulatory system can also be
defined as your cardiovascular system. Cardio means heart, and vascular refers to blood vessels.
Anatomy of the human circulatory system.

»» The circulatory system provides blood to all the body’s tissues so they can function.
Function
What does the circulatory system do?
»» The circulatory system’s function is to move blood throughout the body. This blood circulation keeps
organs, muscles and tissues healthy and working to keep you alive.
»» The circulatory system also helps your body get rid of waste products. This waste includes:
»» Carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing).
»» Other chemical byproducts from your organs.
»» Waste from things you eat and drink.

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How does the circulatory system work?

»» Your circulatory system functions with the help of blood vessels that include arteries, veins and
capillaries. These blood vessels work with your heart and lungs to continuously circulate blood through
your body.
Here’s how :

»» The heart’s bottom right pumping chamber (right ventricle) sends blood that’s low in oxygen (oxygen-
poor blood) to the lungs. Blood travels through the pulmonary trunk (the main pulmonary artery).
»» Blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs.
»» Pulmonary veins carry the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart’s left atrium (upper heart
chamber).
»» The left atrium sends the oxygenated blood into the left ventricle (lower chamber). This muscular part
of the heart pumps blood out to the body through the arteries.
»» As it moves through your body and organs, blood collects and drops off nutrients, hormones and waste
products.
»» The veins carry deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the heart, which sends the blood to the
lungs.
»» Your lungs get rid of the carbon dioxide when you exhale.
Anatomy :

What are the circulatory system parts?

»» The parts of your circulatory system are your:
»» Heart, a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout your body.
»» Blood vessels, which include your arteries, veins and capillaries.
»» Blood, made up of red and white blood cells, plasma and platelets.
What are the circulatory system circuits?
»» Your circulatory system has three circuits. Blood circulates through your heart and through these
circuits in a continuous pattern:
»» The pulmonary circuit : This circuit carries blood without oxygen from the heart to the lungs. The
pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the heart.
»» The systemic circuit : In this circuit, blood with oxygen, nutrients and hormones travels from the heart
to the rest of the body. In the veins, the blood picks up waste products as the body uses up the oxygen,
nutrients and hormones.
»» The coronary circuit : Coronary refers to your heart’s arteries. This circuit provides the heart muscle
with oxygenated blood. The coronary circuit then returns oxygen-poor blood to the heart’s right upper
chamber (atrium) to send to the lungs for oxygen.
What are the types of blood vessels?
There are three main types of blood vessels :

Arteries :

• Arteries are thin, muscular tubes that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and to every part
of your body.
• The aorta is the body’s largest artery.

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• It starts at the heart and travels up the chest (ascending aorta) and then down into the stomach
(descending aorta).
• The coronary arteries branch off the aorta, which then branch into smaller arteries (arterioles) as
they get farther from your heart.
Vein :

• These blood vessels return oxygen-depleted blood to the heart. Veins start small (venules) and get
larger as they approach your heart. Two central veins deliver blood to your heart.
• The superior vena cava carries blood from the upper body (head and arms) to the heart.
• The inferior vena cava brings blood up from the lower body (stomach, pelvis and legs) to the heart.
• Veins in the legs have valves to keep blood from flowing backward.
Capillaries :

• These blood vessels connect very small arteries (arterioles) and veins (venules).
• Capillaries have thin walls that allow oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products to pass
into and out of cells.
Blood :

• Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements.
Components of Blood are as follows
i. Plasma:

• Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood.
• 90-92 percent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 percent of it.
• Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3 – , Cl– , etc.
Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the plasma.
• Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
ii. Formed Elements:

• Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets are collectively called formed elements and they constitute
nearly 45 percent of the blood.
• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in blood.
• RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most mammals and are biconcave in shape. They have a red coloured,
iron containing complex protein called hemoglobin, hence the colour and name of these cells.
iii. Leukocytes:

• Leukocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colourless due to the lack of
hemoglobin.
• They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in number.
• The two main categories of WBCs – granulocytes and agranulocytes. Neutrophils, eosinophils
and basophils are different types of granulocytes, while lymphocytes and monocytes are the
agranulocytes.
iv. Platelets:

• Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes (special
cells in the bone marrow).

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• A reduction in their number can lead to clotting disorders which will lead to excessive loss of blood
from the body.
v. Blood Groups:

• The surfaces of erythrocytes contain a genetically determined assortment of antigens composed of

glycoproteins and glycolipids.
• These antigens, called agglutinogens (a-gloo-TINoÉ-jens), occur in characteristic combinations.
• Based on the presence or absence of various antigens, blood is categorized into different blood
groups.
vi. ABO Group:

• ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that can
induce immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B.
• People with type AB blood do not have anti-A or anti-B antibodies in their blood plasma.
• They are sometimes called universal recipients because theoretically they can receive blood from
donors of all four blood types.
• People with type O blood have neither A nor B antigens on their RBCs and are sometimes called
universal donors because theoretically they can donate blood to all four ABO blood types.
• Type O persons requiring blood may receive only type O blood.
vii. Transfusions:

• A transfusion is the transfer of whole blood or blood components (red blood cells only or blood
plasma only) .
• A transfusion is most often given to alleviate anaemia, to increase blood volume (for example, after
a severe haemorrhage), or to improve immunity.
• In an incompatible blood transfusion, antibodies in the recipient’s plasma bind to the antigens on
the donated RBCs, which causes agglutination, or clumping, of the RBCs.
• Agglutination is an antigen–antibody response in which RBCs become cross-linked to one another.
vii. Rh Grouping:

• Rh antigen, similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is also observed on the surface
of RBCs of the majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans.

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• Such individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is absent are called
Rh negative (Rh-ve).
• An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens.
• Therefore, the Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.
• The most common problem with rh incompatibility, haemolytic disease of the newborn (Hdn), may
arise during pregnancy.
• Normally, no direct contact occurs between maternal and fetal blood while a woman is pregnant.
• However, if a small amount of rh+ blood leaks from the fetus through the placenta into the
bloodstream of an rh- mother, the mother will start to make anti-rh antibodies.
• An injection of anti-rh antibodies called anti-rh gamma globulin (rhoGaM) can be given to prevent
Hdn. rh- women should receive rhoGaM before delivery, and soon after every delivery.
ix. Lymph (Tissue Fluid):

• The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the lymph. Lymph is a colourless fluid containing
specialised lymphocytes which are responsible for the immune responses of the body.
• Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc. Fats are absorbed through lymph
in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.
2. Disease:

• Health does not simply mean absence of disease or physical fitness. It could be defined as a state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being. When people are healthy, they are more efficient
at work.
• This increases productivity and brings economic prosperity. Health also increases longevity of
people and reduces infant and maternal mortality.
3. Communicable Diseases

• Communicable diseases spread from one person to another or from an animal to a person.
• The spread often happens via airborne viruses or bacteria, but also through blood or other bodily
fluid.
Some ways in which communicable diseases spread are by :

• Physical contact with an infected person, such as through touch (staphylococcus), sexual intercourse
(gonorrhea, HIV), faecal/oral transmission (hepatitis A), or droplets (influenza, TB)
• Contact with a contaminated surface or object (Norwalk virus), food (salmonella, E. coli), blood
(HIV, hepatitis B), or water (cholera);
• Bites from insects or animals capable of transmitting the disease (mosquito: malaria and yellow
fever; flea: plague);
• Travel through the air, such as tuberculosis or measles.
4. Antimicrobial Resistance (Amr) :

• Antimicrobial resistance is an important concern for the public health authorities at global level.
Reason for Emergence of AMR -

• Misuse of antimicrobials in medicine: Drug resistance develops as a result of overuse, underuse,

and misuse of medications.
• Inappropriate use in agriculture: Antibiotics in subtherapeutic doses are used in animal husbandry

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to promote growth and illness prevention. This can lead to the development of resistant bacteria
that can infect people.
• Contamination around pharmaceutical manufacturing sites where untreated waste releases large
amounts of active antimicrobials into the environment.
• Infection control and prevention are ineffective, which can lead to the spread of drug-resistant
diseases. One of the biggest reservoirs of resistant microbes is hospitalized patients.
• Weak surveillance methods make it difficult to notice the formation of resistance and respond
quickly.
i. What is the difference between antibiotic and antimicrobial resistance?
• Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections.
• Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines.
Bacteria, not humans, become antibiotic resistant.
• These bacteria may then infect humans and are harder to treat than non-resistant bacteria.
• Antimicrobial resistance is a broader term, encompassing resistance to drugs to treat infections
caused by other microbes as well, such as parasites (e.g. malaria), viruses (e.g. HIV) and fungi
(e.g. Candida).
ii. Superbugs :
• A superbug refers to a microorganism that has formed resistance to multiple drugs that once
treated the infection caused by the microorganism.
5. Non Communicable Diseases :

• Non Communicable Diseases, also

known as chronic diseases, tend
to be of long duration and are the
result of a combination of genetic,
physiological, environmental and
behavioral factors.
• Main types of NCDs are
cardiovascular diseases (like heart
attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic
respiratory diseases (such as chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease and
asthma) and diabetes.
• NCDs contribute to around 71% of all the deaths globally and to about 60% of all deaths in India.
6. Zoonotic Diseases :

• According to the WHO, zoonosis is an infectious disease that has jumped from a non-human animal
to humans.
• Zoonotic pathogens may be bacterial, viral or parasitic, or may involve unconventional agents and
can spread to humans through direct contact or through food, water or the environment.
• According to the National Center for Disease Control (NCDC), zoonotic illnesses account for
around 75% of new and re-emerging infections.
• Habitat alterations due to unplanned urbanization has placed humans at increasing contact with
animal and arthropod vectors of viral infections.

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• Poor living conditions and inadequate health systems have also contributed to the scenario.
7. Basics Of The Immune Systems:

• The overall ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms, conferred by the immune
system is called immunity.
1. Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers:

1. Physical barriers : Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents entry of the
microorganisms.
2. Physiological barriers : Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes–all prevent
microbial growth.
3. Cellular barriers : Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body like polymorpho-nuclear
leukocytes (PMNL- neutrophils) in the blood as well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose
and destroy microbes.
4. Cytokine barriers : Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect
non-infected cells from further viral infection.
Acquired Immunity:

• Acquired immunity is pathogen specific. It is characterized by memory.

• This means when our body encounters a pathogen for the first time it produces a response called
primary response which is of low intensity.
• Subsequent encounters with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary or anamnestic
response.
• This type of immune responses are carried out with the help of two special types of lymphocytes
present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
• The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response to pathogens into our blood to fight
with them. These proteins are called antibodies.
• T-cells themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells to produce them.
• The body is able to differentiate self and nonself and the cell-mediated immune response is respon-
sible for the graft rejection. This graft rejection is mediated by the T cell.
8. Antigen :

• Any substance that causes the body to make an immune response against that substance.
• Antigens include toxins, chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or other substances that come from outside
the body.
• Body tissues and cells, including cancer cells, also have antigens on them that can cause an immune
response.
9. Superantigen :

• Superantigens are antigens that cause the immune system to become overly activated.
• Most known superantigens are peptides of between 22 and 29 kD that are resistant to proteases and
heat inactivation and share common structural features.
• Superantigens are thought to play important roles in the pathophysiology of some forms of
bacterial food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome, Kawasaki’s disease, psoriasis, and possibly some
autoimmune conditions.

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10. Αnti-bodies :

• All antibodies share a common structure of four polypeptide chains, consisting of two identical
light (L) chains and two identical heavy (H) chains.
• Each light chain is bound to its partner heavy chain by a disulphide bond between corresponding
cysteine residues, as well as by noncovalent interactions.
• The antibody molecule forms a Y shape with two identical antigen-binding regions at the tips of
the Y.
• Human antibodies are classified into five isotypes (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE) according to their
H chains, which provide each isotype with distinct characteristics and roles.
• Because these antibodies are found in the blood, the response is also called as humoral immune
response.
Monoclonal Antibodies :

• They are antibodies that have been generated artificially to help the body’s natural immune system.
• They’re looking for a certain antigen.
• In the lab, monoclonal antibodies are made by exposing white blood cells to a specific antigen.
• To enhance the amount of antibodies produced, a single white blood cell is cloned, and identical
copies of the antibodies are created.
• Our Saliva, Mother’ s milk and Tears contain Antibody IgA.
• IgG antibodies can be transported from mother to baby during pregnancy.
11. Active And Passive Immunity :

• When a host is exposed to antigens,

which may be in the form of living
or dead microbes or other proteins,
antibodies are produced in the host
body. This type of immunity is called
active immunity. Active immunity is
slow and takes time to give its full
effective response
• When ready-made antibodies are
directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, it is called passive immunity.
• Example : In cases of snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed
antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunization is called passive immunization.
• Transfer of antibody through Mother’s colostrum to the Bab
12. Vaccine

• A vaccine is a biological substance that gives active acquired immunity against a specific infectious
disease.
• A vaccine works by training the immune system to recognize and combat pathogens, either viruses
or bacteria.
• To do this, certain molecules from the pathogen must be introduced into the body to trigger an
immune response.
• These molecules are called antigens, and they are present on all viruses and bacteria.

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• By injecting these antigens into the body, the immune system can safely learn to recognize them as
hostile invaders, produce antibodies, and remember them for the future.
• If the bacteria or virus reappears, the immune system will recognize the antigens immediately and
attack aggressively well before the pathogen can spread and cause sickness.

1. Types of vaccine:

• Inactivated or weakened virus vaccines, which use a form of the virus that has been inactivated
or weakened so it doesn’t cause disease, but still generates an immune response. Covaxin is an
inactivated whole virus vaccine, containing SARS-CoV-2 particles that have been chemically
deactivated.
• Protein-based vaccines, which use harmless fragments of proteins or protein shells that mimic
the antigenic element of pathogenic agent to safely generate an immune response.
• Viral vector vaccines, which use a safe virus that cannot cause disease but serves as a platform
to produce coronavirus proteins to generate an immune response. Covishield uses a chimpanzee
adenovirus (AZD1222 or ChAdOx1), which carries the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. The
chimpanzee adenovirus has been used because humans will not have pre-existing antibodies to
this adenovirus.
13. Mrna Based Vaccines :

• The mRNA vaccines do not use the

conventional model to produce an
immune response. Instead, the mRNA
vaccine carries the molecular instructions
to make the protein in the body through a
synthetic RNA of the virus. Fig. Mechanism of mRNA
Vaccine
• The host body uses this to produce
the viral protein that is recognised and
thereby making the body mount an immune response against the disease.

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Significance of mRNA Vaccines :

• They are expected to be highly efficacious because of their inherent capability of being translatable
into the protein structure inside the cell cytoplasm.
• The mRNA vaccines are fully synthetic and do not require a host for growth, e.g., eggs or bacteria.
Therefore, they can be quickly manufactured in an inexpensive manner.
• This will ensure their availability and accessibility for mass vaccination on a sustainable basis.
14. Vaccines And Antimicrobial Resistance

»» While vaccines are not intended to replace antibiotics, they can contribute to reducing AMR
(Antimicrobial Resistance or drug resistance) by preventing (resistant) bacterial diseases and their
transmission, and by reducing antibiotic use and misuse.
»» There is no vaccine which can be 100% efficient and safe,
»» For example:
• Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines can have side effects ranging from fever, loss of appetite to
headache, fussiness.
• The oral polio vaccine (OPV) is an extremely safe and effective tool for immunizing children
against polio. On very rare occasions, OPV can lead to vaccine- associated paralytic polio or
vaccine-derived poliovirus.

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 4. Basics Of Chemistry
Topics Covered
1. Basics Of The Chemistry 2. Metals
3. Basics Of Metallurgy 4. Non Metals
5. Different Kinds Of Compounds 6. Chemical Reactions
7. Acids, Bases And Salts. 8. Drugs And Their Classification
9. Polymers

1. Basics Of The Chemistry :

State of Matters :

»» Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.

»» Conventionally matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
i. Solid :

• Particles are held very close to each other in solids in an orderly fashion and there is not much
freedom of movement.
• Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
ii. Liquids :

• In liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move around.
• Liquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape.
iii. Gasses :
• In gasses, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid states and their
movement is easy and fast.
• Gasses have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
• On heating, a solid usually changes to a liquid, and the liquid on further heating changes to gas
(or vapour). In the reverse process, a gas on cooling liquifies to the liquid and the liquid on further
cooling freezes to the solid.
iv. 4th state of Matter :

»» Plasma, the fourth state of matter, is an ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of
positively and negatively charged particles.

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iv. 5th state of matter (Bose Einstein Condensates) :

»» Albert Einstein and Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose proposed the existence of a Bose-Einstein
condensate almost a century ago. When atoms of certain elements are chilled to temperatures
approaching absolute zero, an unusual substance emerges. Clusters of atoms begin to behave as a single
quantum object with both wave and particle qualities at that moment. BECs are highly fragile, and even
the tiniest interaction with the outside world can cause them to overheat and condense.
2. Metals :
»» They have a lustre (shine). They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour. They conduct heat and
electricity.
»» They are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
»» They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets).
»» They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit)
»» Examples of metals are gold, silver, copper, iron, sodium, potassium etc. Mercury is the only metal that
is liquid at room temperature
3. Basics Of Metallurgy :
»» Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical
Metallurgy is a term that refers to the process of extracting metals in their purest form.
»» Minerals are metal compounds that are mixed with soil, limestone, sand and rocks.
»» Metals are mined commercially from minerals at a low cost and with little effort.
»» Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as soil, sand,
etc., called gangue.
»» The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal.
»» The metals produced by metallurgy are not very pure. They contain impurities, which must be removed
to obtain pure metals.
»» The most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
»» In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure metal is made the cathode.
A solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte.
»» The soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas, the insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom
of the anode and are known as anode mud.
4. Non Metals :
»» They display a variety of colours.
»» They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
»» They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
»» Examples of non-metals are hydrogen, oxygen, iodine, carbon (coal, coke), bromine, chlorine etc.
Metalloids -

»» Some elements have intermediate properties between those of metals and non-metals, they are called
metalloids.
The six commonly recognised metalloids are :

1. Boron 2. Silicon

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3. Germanium 5. Antimony
4. Arsenic 6. Tellurium
5. Different Kinds Of Compounds :
»» A compound is a substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded
together.
»» Two types of chemical bonds common in compounds are covalent bonds and ionic bonds.
»» The elements in any compound are always present in fixed ratios.
»» A chemical compound can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions.
»» On heating the two elements strongly we get a compound, which has totally different properties
compared to the combining elements.
»» The composition, texture and the colour of the compound are the same throughout.
»» Properties of a compound are different from its constituent elements, whereas a mixture shows the
properties of its constituting elements or compounds.
»» Any material that is not a mixture, is called a pure substance.
»» Pure substances can be elements or compounds.

6. Chemical Reactions :
»» Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new substances.
Chemical Reactions
»» A combination reaction : is a reaction in which two reactants combine to form one product.
»» Decomposition Reactions : Decomposition reactions are those in which one compound breaks down
(or decomposes) to form two or more products.
»» Displacement Reactions : Displacement reactions are those in which an element reacts with a
compound to form a new compound.
»» Double Displacement Reaction : reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants
are called double displacement reactions.
»» Oxidation and Reduction : one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reduced during a reaction.
Such reactions are called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.
»» Exchange Reactions : Exchange reactions are those in which cations and anions that were partners
in the reactants are interchanged in the products.In exchange reactions, the products must remain
electrically neutral.

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»»
7. Acids, Bases And Salts :
Acid:

»» Curd, lemon juice, vinegar, etc. taste sour because they contain
acids.
»» The chemical nature of such substances is acidic.
»» Each cell in our body contains an acid, the deoxyribonucleic
acid or DNA. It controls every feature of the body such as our
looks, colour of our eyes, our height etc.
»» Proteins that build part of our cells are also made of amino
acids.
»» The fats in our body contain fatty acids.
»» The atmosphere of Venus is made up of thick white &
yellowish clouds of sulphuric acid.
»» Venus is bright (it has a high albedo) because it is blanketed by
highly reflective sulphuric acid clouds.
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»» Baking soda does not taste sour as it has no acids in it. It is bitter in taste. Substances like these which
are bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching are known as bases. The nature of such substances is basic.
Bases :

»» Taste bitter, Feel slippery or soapy, Feel slippery or soapy, Become less basic on mixing with acids.
»» A base is a substance which furnishes hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. For example,
sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq), in its aqueous solutions, dissociates as: NaOH (aq) 🠆 Na + (aq) + OH
– (aq)
Salts :

»» Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H + ion and an anion other than OH– ion. o Acids
react with metal oxides to produce salt and water. o Bases react with non-metal oxides to produce salt
and water.
8. Drugs And Their Classification :

»» Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses (~100 – 500u). These interact with macromolecular
targets and produce a biological response.
»» When the biological response is therapeutic and useful, these chemicals are called medicines and are
used in diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.
Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs:

»» Antacids : Antacids are medicines that counteract (neutralize) the acid in your stomach to relieve
indigestion and heartburn. Example: Ranitidine
»» Antihistamines : Antihistamines are a class of drugs commonly used to treat symptoms of
allergies. Example: Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane), act as
antihistamines.
»» Neurologically Active Drugs : Tranquilizers and analgesics are neurologically active drugs. These
affect the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
• Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of stress, and mild or even
severe mental diseases.
»» E.g. Sleeping Pills o Equanil is used in controlling depression and hypertension.
»» Analgesics : Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some other disturbances of the nervous system.

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These are classified as follows :
i. Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics : Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of
nonnarcotic analgesics. Aspirin is the most familiar example.
ii. Narcotic drugs : Morphine and many of its homologues, when administered in medicinal doses,
relieve pain and produce sleep.
»» Antimicrobials : An antimicrobial tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the pathogenic
action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral
agents), or other parasites (antiparasitic drugs) selectively.
»» Antibiotics : Antibiotics are used as drugs to treat infections because of their low toxicity for humans
and animals.
• An antibiotic now refers to a substance produced wholly or partly by chemical synthesis, which
in low concentrations inhibits the growth or destroys microorganisms by intervening in their
metabolic processes.
• Antibiotics have either a cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on microbes.
A few examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows:

1. Bactericidal: Penicillin and

2. Bacteriostatic: Erythromycin
»» Antiseptics and Disinfectants : Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill
or prevent the growth of microorganisms.
• Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin
surfaces. Examples are furacine, soframicine, etc.Commonly used antiseptic, dettol is a mixture of
chloroxylenol and terpineol
• Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, drainage system, instruments, etc.
Same substances can act as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant by varying the concentration.
For example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its one percent solution is
disinfectant.
»» Antifertility drugs : Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and
progesterone derivatives.
• Both of these compounds are hormones. It is known that progesterone suppresses ovulation.
• Synthetic progesterone derivatives are more potent than progesterone. Norethindrone is an example
of synthetic progesterone derivative most widely used as an antifertility drug.
9. Polymers
»» A synthetic fibre is a chain of small units joined together. Each small unit is actually a chemical
substance. Many such small units combine to form a large single unit called a polymer.
»» Polymer : a substance with a molecular structure formed from many identical small molecules or other
units bonded together. Monomer ➔ a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form
a polymer.
• Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for example, is a polymer called cellulose.
• Cellulose is made up of a large number of glucose units.
• All the synthetic fibres are prepared by a number of processes using raw materials of petroleum
origin, called petrochemicals.

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Fig. Examples Of Polymers

Students Result & feedback

Vipin cleared CSE & IFoS

Prelims 2023

Finally Dreams Comes True ...

Nikhil Murthy cleared CSE Prelims 2023

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5. Nuclear Energy
Topics Covered
1. Atoms 5. Three Stages Of Nuclear Power
Programme
2. Radioactivity
6. International Thermonuclear Experimental
3. Nuclear Technology
Reactor (Iter)
4. Uranium Enrichment
7. Cold Fusion

INTRODUCTION :

»» Nucleus is a store of energy.

»» As it is popularly known nucleus is made of nucleons or protons and neutrons.
»» The protons are positively charged, and neutrons have no charge.
Then how are they kept together in the nucleus?

»» There must be a force to keep them together, right?

»» This force is the nuclear force and the energy arising out of this force is nuclear energy.
1. Atoms :
»» Acharya Kanda, born in 600 BCE, originally known by the name Kashyap, was the first proponent of
the atomic theory.
»» He formulated the theory of very small indivisible particles, which he named Paramanu (comparable to
atoms). He authored the text Vaiseshika Sutras.
»» According to him, all substances are aggregated form of smaller units called atoms (Paramanu), which
are eternal, indestructible, spherical, suprasensible and in motion in the original state
»» Atoms are matter and composed of small indivisible particles called atoms.
»» Constituents of an Atom : An atom consists of three fundamental subatomic particles - ¯Electron, Pro-
ton and Neutron.
»» Atomic number (Z) = number of Protons.
»» Atomic mass number (A) = number of Protons + Neutrons
»» Isotopes : an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom.
• Example : Hydrogen has 3 types of isotopes, Protium (light water), Deuterium (heavy water) &
Tritium and Uranium-238, Uranium-235 etc.
»» Nuclear Force : Acts between protons and neutrons of atoms and binds the protons and neutrons in a
nucleus together. So, nuclear force is strongest in nuclei and weak between electrons and nuclei.
2. Radioactivity :
»» Atoms can be stable or unstable, and the instability is caused by the neutrons in their nucleus.
»» Unstable atoms are called radioactive, and when they decay, they release energy in the form of radia-
tion. There are three types of radiation: alpha, beta, and gamma.
»» All elements above atomic number 83 are radioactive, including Uranium (92), Plutonium (94), and
Thorium (90).
»» The nucleus of these elements has a tendency to decay and release a large amount of energy.

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FISSION :

»» Fission is a special type of radioactivity which results in ‘splitting’ of the nucleus into 2 or more parts.
»» Now this process can happen spontaneously (by itself in accordance with half-life rule) or it can be
induced (this is of interest to us). In the latter case fission is induced by a hitting neutron.
»» The neutron adds up to the nucleus and makes in unstable and results in eventual ‘split up’. This is the
basis for all nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.
FUSION :

»» Nuclear fusion is the process of combining two or more nuclei to form a heavier nucleus and release
high-energy radiation.
»» This process occurs naturally in stars, where the high temperature at the core allows for the nuclei to
overcome the repulsive electromagnetic force and fuse together.
»» An example of fusion is the combination of four hydrogen nuclei to form helium, releasing energy in
the form of neutrinos, gamma rays, and positrons.
3. Nuclear Technology :
»» Nuclear fission is a process that involves split or break up of nucleus of an atom into 2 or more parts.
In the process a large amount of energy is released which is the basis on which both nuclear weapons
and nuclear fission reactors work. In both cases nuclear fission is induced by hitting it with a neutron.
For nuclear fission reactors or weapons to work there must be continuous split of nucleus. This ‘split’
is induced by hitting the nucleus of some special atoms with a neutron.
Accordingly, following conditions must be met to extract nuclear energy

1. Continuous supply of nucleus that can be split (Critical Mass)

2. Continuous supply of neutrons that induce the split (Chain reaction)
CHAIN REACTION :

»» Continuous supply of neutrons to induce split in the nucleus is called a chain reaction. Some special
atoms, called fissile material, can split and release neutrons.
»» Fissile materials include Uranium-235, Uranium-233, and Plutonium-239.
»» When fissile material is hit with a neutron, it splits and releases 2-3 more neutrons, causing a chain
reaction. Uranium-238 and Thorium-232 are not fissile materials.
»» A chain reaction releases a lot of energy and is used in nuclear reactors and weapons.
»» 10 kg of U-235 completely splits in about 84 splits, while 10 kg of Pl-239 is completely split in 53
cycles.
CRITICAL MASS :

»» For a chain reaction to occur, there must be enough U235 nucleus for the secondary neutrons to hit and
sustain the reaction.
»» The minimum amount of fuel required to sustain the chain reaction is called the critical mass.
»» If there is not enough fuel, the neutrons will escape and the reaction will stop.
»» Maintaining the critical mass is crucial for nuclear reactors and weapons to function properly.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND NUCLEAR REACTORS :

»» Weapons and reactors both involve the release of energy from the nucleus of an atom, but the difference
lies in the amount and control of the energy release.
»» In nuclear weapons, the chain reaction is uncontrolled, resulting in an instant and massive release of
energy until all the fissile material is consumed.
»» In nuclear reactors, a controlled chain reaction is desired to provide a constant and continuous supply of
energy. This is achieved by allowing only one neutron to hit another nucleus and using materials called
control rods to absorb additional neutrons and prevent an uncontrolled chain reaction.
»» The sustained chain reaction in nuclear reactors provides a steady supply of energy, while uncontrolled
chain reactions in weapons result in a massive and instantaneous release of energy.
MODERATOR :

»» The speed of a neutron is an important factor in determining its ability to hit a nucleus.
»» Neutrons released in fission reactions are highly energetic and must be slowed down to increase the
probability of them hitting another nucleus.
»» Moderators are used to slow down fast-moving neutrons. Moderators consist of atoms of light nuclei,
which are smaller in size than the neutron and can slow it down through collisions.
»» Commonly used moderators include light water (normal water), heavy water (deuterium), and graphite.
NUCLEAR FUEL :

»» As mentioned above Uranium-235, Plutonium-239 and Uranium-233 are the only fissile material avail-
able for reactors. Out of them only Uranium-235 is naturally occurring, Pu-239 and U-233 are made in
a special type of reactors called breeder reactors. Now let us look into the relevant details of these fuels.
4. Uranium Enrichment :
NATURALLY OCCURRING URANIUM :

»» Naturally occurring uranium consists of 0.3% U-235 (fissile) and 99.7% U-238 (not fissile).
»» U-238 is a fertile material that can be converted to fissile Plutonium-239 upon neutron absorption.
»» U-235 is fissile and undergoes fission upon neutron bombardment, releasing 2-3 neutrons that can in-
duce further fission, setting up a chain reaction.
»» Naturally occurring uranium does not contain enough U-235 to sustain a chain reaction, so two strate-
gies can be employed: uranium enrichment or slowing down the neutron.
»» Slowing down the neutron increases the probability of it hitting U-235, which is achieved by using
moderators, materials that can slow down neutrons without absorbing them.
»» Neutron reflectors are inserted in the core of the reactor to slow down the fast neutrons and make more
of them available to hit the little fissile U-235.
ENRICHED URANIUM :

»» Enrichment is a process to increase the amount of U235 nucleus available for fission to sustain the
chain reaction.
»» The level of enrichment depends on the amount and speed of energy needed to be released.
»» In a nuclear reactor, about 3% U-235 is sufficient, while in a bomb, it should be at least 80%.
»» The critical mass of U-235 is 3% and 80% for reactors and weapons, respectively.

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PLUTONIUM-239 :

»» U-235 is the only fissile material that is naturally occurring. Other two, Pu-239 and U-233, are made
in reactors.
»» Plutonium-239 is a highly favored fissile material as it releases more energy than U-235.
»» U-238, when hit by a neutron, becomes highly radioactive U-239 and then neptunium-239, before
turning into Pu-239.
»» Plutonium is produced by absorbing a neutron into U238, then chemically separated.
»» U-238 tends to absorb slow-moving neutrons more readily than fast-moving neutrons, and Pu-239 un-
dergoes fission readily if neutrons are slowed down.
»» Breeder reactors use this process to convert U-238 to Pu-239.
URANIUM-233 :

»» U-233 is a fissile material that is produced in reactors from Thorium-232. U-233 releases 2-3 neutrons
upon fission, setting in motion the chain reaction.
»» Fast-moving neutrons are more effective in bringing about fission in U-233 than in Pu-239.
»» Fast Breeder Reactors are not successful with Pu-239 as 35% of the neutrons get absorbed by Pu-239
to become Pu-240.
»» In contrast, 100% of the fast neutrons are used in splitting the nucleus in U-233.
»» India’s 3-stage nuclear program involves the use of U233.
5. Three Stages Of Nuclear Power Programme :
»» The dual-use nature of nuclear energy, particularly fission, makes it an important component of both
India’s vision for low-carbon future and secure through nuclear deterrence.
»» In line with this India’s 3-stage nuclear programme is a strategy for a sustainable, continuous, reliable,
and self-dependent supply of nuclear energy. India has about 25% of world’s thorium in the form of
monazite sands (9%-thorium) along its coastline.
»» Thus the 3-stage nuclear programme is developed with the aim of utilizing the vast thorium reserves as
India has limited availability of Uranium reserves (about 2% of the world’s uranium reserves).
»» 1ST PHASE – NATURAL URANIUMBASED REACTOR - U-235 being fissile sets up the chain
reaction and U-238 being non-fissile gets converted to Pu-239 as a by-product (spent fuel). Essentially
it is important for this ‘spent fuel’ which contains mixture of Pu-239 and U-238. The spent fuel is then
chemically separated (reprocessed) for use in the second stage. The reactor type used is PHWR.
»» 2ND PHASE : BREEDER-REACTORS - Plutonium reprocessed in stage 1 is used as fuel in the core
to produce energy. The extra neutrons produced in the core are used to produce more fuel. These extra
neutron are allowed to be absorbed by either U-238 or Thorium-232 to produce more Plutonium-239
or Uranium-233 respectively. U-233 so produced is chemically separated (reprocessed) to act as fuel
for the 3rd stage.
»» 3RD PHASE: U-233-BREEDERS - This is most important phase where U-233 obtained from the
reprocessed spent fuel from 2nd stage acts as fuel in the reactor core to produce energy. The extra
neutrons released are made to be absorbed by Thorium-232 outside the core to produce more U-233.
6. International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (Iter) :
»» ITER (“The Way” in Latin) is one of the most ambitious energy projects in the world today.
»» The ITER members include China, the European Union, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia and the

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United States (35 nations) are collaborating to build the world’s largest tokamak, a magnetic fusion
device that has been designed to prove the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale and carbon-free source
of energy based on the same principle that powers our Sun and stars.
i. What is Tokamak?

• The tokamak is an experimental machine designed to harness the energy of fusion. Inside a tokamak, the
energy produced through the fusion of atoms is absorbed as heat in the walls of the vessel.
• Just like a conventional power plant, a fusion power plant will use this heat to produce steam and then
electricity by way of turbines and generators.
It is designed to :

• Produce 500 MW of fusion power

• Demonstrate the integrated operation of technologies for a fusion power plant
• Achieve a deuterium-tritium plasma in which the reaction is sustained through internal heating
• Test tritium breeding
• Demonstrate the safety characteristics of a fusion device
ii. India’s Contribution:

• India joined the ITER project in 2005 and is in charge of cryostats, in-wall shielding, cooling water
systems, cryogenic systems, heating systems, the Diagnostic Neutral Beam System, power supplies, and
some diagnostics.
• India is providing approximately $2.2 billion to this initiative.
• The Indian domestic agency, ITER-India, is a specifically authorized initiative of the Institute
for Plasma Research (IPR), a Department of Atomic Energy-aided enterprise.
7. Cold Fusion
»» Cold fusion is a type of nuclear reaction that is thought to take place at or near room temperature.
»» It would be in sharp contrast to the hotfusion that occurs naturally in stars and artificially in hydrogen
bombs and prototype fusion reactors under great pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees.

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6: BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS

Topics Covered
1. Gravity 6. Carbon Nanotubes.
2. Newton’s Laws Of Motion 7. Laser Technology
3. Nanotechnology 8. Quantam Dots
4. Nano materials. 9. Application of Nanotechnology
5. Graphene

1. Gravity
»» Gravity is the force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center. The force of
gravity keeps all of the planets in orbit around the sun.
»» Universal Law Of Gravitation : Anything that has mass also has gravity. Objects with more mass
have more gravity. Gravity also gets weaker with distance. So, the closer objects are to each other, the
stronger their gravitational pull is.
»» The universal law of gravitation successfully
explained several phenomena which were believed to
be unconnected :
• Force that binds us to the earth;
• Motion of the moon around the earth;
• Motion of planets around the sun; and
• Tides due to the moon and the Sun.
2. Newton’s Laws Of Motion
»» Newton formulated the well-known laws of motion. He designed an astronomical telescope to carry out
astronomical observations. He invented a new branch of mathematics, called calculus.

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»» First Law: An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled
to change that state by an applied force.
• In other words, all objects resist a change in their state of motion.
• Means a body/object wants to remain in an undisturbed situation. If it is motion then want to remain
in motion or if in rest then want to remain in rest. (Inertia)
»» Second Law : states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the applied
unbalanced force in the direction of force.
»» Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting
objects.
• The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object.
3. Nanotechnology
»» Nanoworld deals with matter at very small scale. Our daily life experience is made of matter in bulk.
For instance every letter you are reading here can fit in 50 million carbon atoms, a sheet of paper has
about 1023 atoms, a 70 kg human has 7 x 1027 atoms etc.
»» We experience the world composed of atoms at bulklevel. If you zoom in and zoom in and zoom in to
the material to say to the level of 100 atoms or 10 atoms, matter behave very differently. This means the
properties of matter depend on the sizes at which they are grouped together. Nanoscience is all about
understanding matter to such 10 atoms-level or 100- atoms level.
»» Term Nanotech comes from the word nanometer
»» Nanometer means 10-9
»» 10−1= 1/10
»» When we bring things to this size, it leads to certain special effects in them

Fig. Behavior Of Material With Size

Behavior Of Material With Size :

(I) At 50nm - Properties similar to bulk material

(II) At 10-50-nm - Properties change linearly
(III) Below 10nm - New properties emerge

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HOW TO MAKE NANOMATERIALS?

»» There are two approaches to make nanomaterial -

• Top-down: Bulk material is powdered or cut or broken into smaller and smaller pieces using
grinders or lasers. It is the most common to date, particularly in the electronics industry
• Bottom-up: Material made atom by atom or molecule by molecule. for example — build a larger
mechanism by a mounting or self-assembly process.
Types of Nanoparticles :

1. Carbon Based : It includes Graphene and other carbon based products.

2. Metal based : The main component of these nanomaterials are metals. They include Nano silver and metal
oxides.

4. Nano materials :
SHAPES OF NANOMATERIALS :

i. NANOPARTICLES OR NANOCRYSTALS :

• Nanoparticles are material that is nano-sized in all 3 dimensions. These are called quantum dots.
Nanoparticles of metals, metal oxides, semiconductors, magnetic materials are all prepared to
harness their properties.
• They may be of different shapes like spherical, triangular, square etc.
ii. ONE-DIMENSIONAL NANOMATERIAL :

• Are nano-sized in one dimension. In other dimensions they could be long.

• Nanowires and nanotubes belong to this category.
• Nanowires and nanotubes of metals, oxides and other material are made
• Carbon nanotube is an example
iii. TWO DIMENSIONAL NANOMATERIAL :

• These nanomaterials extend into two-dimensions like a sheet of paper.

• Examples: Nanofilms, Nanosheets & Nanowalls.
5. Graphene

Electronic
components New Materials
Carbon
diodes/transistors Nanotube

Graphene
Fullerene

(Bio) Sensors
Drug delivery

»» Graphene is an example of nanosheet and is an example of two-dimensional nano-material. Graphite

(in your pencil) is made of layers and layers each with rings of 6 carbon atoms. If you take one layer
from this you have graphene.
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»» It is one-atom thick sheet of carbon, thinnest of all material.

»» Carbon Nano Tubes is just rolled up graphene and fullerene is graphene shaped into sphere. Thus it is
called mother of all carbon-based system.
GRAPHANE :

»» If we Inject hydrogen into graphene and it becomes insulator called graphane. This could have variety
of applications including:
• The ability to reduce the scattering of electrons make it a promising material for electronic devices
such as transistors and capacitors.
• It can store hydrogen gas efficiently, making it a potential material for fuel-cell run electric vehicles.
• Its nanoporous structure can be used to create filters for water purification and desalination
plants.
• With high surface area and ability to interact with gases make it a potential material for gas
sensors.
• It biocompatibility and ability to inhibit bacterial growth make it a potential material for med-
ical implants and drug delivery systems.
6. Carbon Nanotubes :
CARBON NANOTUBES (CNT) :

»» Type of One-dimensional Nanomaterial.

»» Carbon is very abundant in nature. They exist in different forms from the rice you eat to the petrol burn
to the diamond you wish to wear.
»» Petrol, rice, diamond all appear different though they are made of same thing (at least in part). How is it
possible? It’s all about how the atoms arrange that decides the formation of different substance you see.
»» If you take carbon and heat it up to very high temperatures the carbon atoms arrange themselves like
clusters each made of 60 carbon atoms. (they become stable by arranging themselves)
»» If you make a cluster using 60 carbon atoms arranging them in the shapes of pentagon and hexagon you
make a football like structure called fullerene or spherical buckyballs. (named after a scientist) Before
this only forms of carbon know were graphite and diamond.
»» These cage-like balls withstand high temperature and pressure. (you heat it more nothing happens)
»» Now imagine stretching this buckyball/football into a sheet and rolling the sheet and cap it at both ends.
This is carbon nanotube.
»» If you have one layered tube it is called single-walled, 2 layers it is called double-walled CNTs, many
more layers you call it multi-walled.
 Extra Readings

1. Properties of CNT 2. PLANT-BASED CNT

7. Laser Technology :
»» In 1960, Theodore H. Maiman of Hughes Research Laboratories created the first practical laser.
»» LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a device that stimulates electronic
or molecular transitions to lower energy levels to produce an intense, coherent, directional beam of
light.
»» A laser, unlike a regular light source, creates a narrow beam of extremely brilliant light

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8. QUANTUM DOTS :
»» Quantum dots are like jails for electrons. Imagine a tiny “box” in which you can trap electrons. Once
you do this you can harness the quantum effects that electrons exhibit.
»» Example: Electrons can absorb energy and emit light of a certain colour, depending on the size of the
quantum dot, Bio-sensors , QLED TV, Biomedical imaging.
»» Quantum dots are particles that are nanosized in all three dimensions. They behave like artificial atoms,
as they can have a fixed number of electrons in a confined space, leading to unique properties that
are sizedependent. One of the key areas of interest is their interaction with light, which has led to the
development of the field of nanophotonics.

9. Applications of Nanotechnology :
NanoFertiliser -

»» Nano Urea Liquid : National Fertilisers Limited (NFL) and Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilisers Ltd
(RCF) signed MoU with IFFCO for ‘transfer of technology’ of Nano Urea Liquid (NUL) fertiliser
»» NUL contains nano-scale nitrogen particles which have more surface area and number of particles
making it more impactful.
»» India has become the first country globally to start commercial production of NUL
Significance :

»» Reduces the requirement of conventional Urea by 50% or more.

»» Improves Soil, Air & Water quality.
»» Cheaper than conventional urea.
Triboelectric Nano-Generators :

»» Scientists from the Centre for Nano and Soft Matter Sciences (CNSMS) have fabricated a cost-
effective, bio-compatible nanogenerator that can generate electricity from mechanical energy in the
form of vibrations present everywhere.
»» CNSMS is an autonomous institute under the Department of Science & Technology.
»» The energy harvesting TENG works on the principle of creation of electrostatic charges (deficiency or

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excess of electrons which occurs on ungrounded or insulating surfaces).

»» Applications include optoelectronics, self-powered devices, and other biomedical applications.
»» major application : pacemakers
Nanomicelles :

»» Recently, Researchers have found that Nanomicelles can be used for Cancer treatment.
»» Nanomicelles are globe-like structures with a hydrophilic outer shell and a hydrophobic
»» interior. This dual property makes them a perfect carrier for delivering drug molecules.
»» Advantage: Low toxicity, ability to minimize drug degradation, ability to permeate tissues easily
»» for drug delivery, and lower adverse drug side effects.
»» Hydrophillic and hydrophobic configuration matches with phsopolipid bilayer thereby allowing
targeted drug delivery
Gold NanoParticles :

»» National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research and the Goa University has successfully synthesized
GNPs using psychrotolerant Antarctic bacteria.
»» GNP’s are biocompatible, have high surface area, more stability, and are non-toxic. GNPs are melted
at much lower temperatures (300 °C) than bulk gold (1064 °C).

Lets understand each of these words Advantages of GNP :

»» Greater solar radiation absorbing ability : photovoltaic cells

»» Unique optical properties : therapeutic imaging for better resolution
»» Useful in the electronics industry : NOMFET (Nanoparticle Organic Memory FieldEffect Transistor)
using GNPs. Mimics human synapse
Carbon Nanomaterials :

»» C-60 Buckminster fullerene

»» Carbon Nanotubes
»» Graphene : 2d Graphite : Flexible touchscreens
»» Cylindrical Hollow figures with sheets of graphite
»» Novel properties, lightweight
»» Tensile strength : load bearing
»» Electrical conductivity
»» Used in electronics, automobiles, sports, space,
aerospace industry
»» However, not biocompatible : Immune Reactions

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Industrial Products :

»» Sunscreens : Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide np help block uv radiations

»» Non flammable furniture : coating
»» Fabrics and Body armour : lightweight, wettability : easy clean textiles
»» Films on glasses, computers and camera displays
»» Quantum dots and electrical effects : QLED tv
Environmental Remediation

»» Nanosensors : neutralize the effect of pullutants

»» Wastewater treatments
»» Nano membranes: desalinization
Energy Sector

»» Biofuel production : nanobioengineering of enzymes

»» Solar panels : TENG
»» Hydrogen economy and storage systems
»» Nanotube scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators for better efficiency
»» GNP : solar panels
»» CNT : PV cell
»» Graphne : production of green hydrogen
Agriculture Sector :

»» Nanoherbicieds and Nanopesticides : targeted delivery and enhancement of productivity

»» Nanophosphorous fertilizer : Millet and cluster beans
»» Silver Nanopartices : against phytopathogens
»» Carbon Nanoparticles : seed germination
»» Nickel / ferrite : Antifungals
»» Zinc oxide/ chitosan : Viral Diseases
»» Precision farming : nanosensors
Health Sector :

»» Antigen Antibody tests : Ex - ELISA test

»» Prosthetic Devices : nanocomposite materials
»» Targeted drug delivery : nanomicelles
»» Nano sensors : HIV and Cancer detection
»» GNP : medical imaging
»» Nanohydrogel based eye drops
Defence :

»» Tank polymer and Camouflage

»» Lightweight materials
»» Precision guided missiles

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Electronics :

»» Quantum dots
»» Graphene : used in flexible touch screens
»» Optoelectronics
»» CNT : replace silicon based chips

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7. Space Technology
Topics Covered
1. Cosmology: The Story Of Universe And Everything 10. Sounding Rockets
In It
11. Rocket Fuel.
2. Standard Model Of Physics: Theory Of Almost
12. International Space Station
Everything.
13. Exploration Of The Sun
3. Space Telescopes
14. Missions To Moon
4. Gravity And Black Hole
15. Missions To Mars
5. Gravitational Waves (Gw)
16. Gaganyaan Mission
6. Orbits
17. Irnss-Navic
7. Types Of Satellites.
18. Space Technology And Disaster Management.
8. Space Technology In India
9. Types Of Launch Vehicles By Isro.

1. Cosmology: The Story Of Universe And Everything In It :

»» Big Bang theory is the hypothesis that explains the story of universe in its 13.7 billion years evolutionary
history.
HUBBLE’S LAW AND EXPANDING UNIVERSE :

»» In 1920s Edwin Hubble fundamentally changed our understanding of the nature of universe.
»» Till then the general notion was that universe is infinite and static. However Hubble proved that universe.
»» This idea was extrapolated to explain the evolutionary history of universe in its 13.7 billion-year
journey.
BIG BANG THEORY :

»» Following from Hubble’s law if universe is expanding today it must have always expanded.
»» Thus in the beginning, all that we see in the universe(matter, energy everything) today must have been
confined in a very small space and thereby extremely dense. This is called singularity. 13.7 billion years
ago this ultra-dense primordial space began to expand and continues to do so even today.
»» This marks the beginning of universe and the theory that explains this is called the Big Bang theory.
»» Below-given figure and table together represent a snapshot of the evolution of universe and the
important landmarks along its journey.
2. Standard Model Of Physics: Theory Of Almost Everything :
»» Broadly, Standard Model is a hypothesis to explain some of the fundamental questions about the
physical world.
»» “What is everything in the universe made of at the fundamental level or sub-atomic level?
»» Quantum Mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with behaviour of nature in the atomic and sub-
atomic world.
»» By 1940s it was established that every matter in the physical world is made up of particles and the
matter interact due to particles at the fundamental level/subatomic level. These particles are called

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fundamental particles or elementary particles or sub-atomic particles.

»» In short, fundamental particles are responsible a. to make up the matter (matter particles) b. for matter
to interact (force carriers)
»» The field which deals with study of these particles is called elementary particle physics and Standard
Model is a hypothesis that tries to everything about the subatomic particles, their characteristics and
their behaviour.
»» Further, particles that make up the matter are called fermions and those that are responsible for matter
to interact are called bosons.
»» Standard Model hypothesises 17 particles that are responsible for all matter and their interaction. In
short the whole universe and everything within it at the fundamental level is made of these particles. In
other words, Standard Model resemble a periodic table for fundamental/elementary/sub-atomic
particles.

MATTER PARTICLES: FERMIONS :

»» Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons which are made of fundamental particles called
quarks. Quarks as you can see are matter particles and are put under the category fermions in the
standard model.
»» Note : Fermions are of 2 types leptons and quarks. It is quarks that make up the neutrons and protons.
What are quarks made of? Nothing but quarks themselves. You can’t break open quarks. That’s why
we call them fundamental particle. Everything else is a lepton. A neutrino, a muon, a pion and many
more. Even an electron is a lepton. Note: Standard Model predicts presence of 12 fermions, 6 leptons
and 6 quarks.
FORCE CARRIERS: BOSONS :

»» All matter in the universe interact based on some ‘rules’ we popularly know as fundamental forces of
nature.
»» There are 4 fundamental forces of nature. These are gravity, electromagnetic force, strong-nuclear
and weak-nuclear force.
1. Gravity is the force of attraction between objects that have mass.
2. Electromagnetic force is the force of attraction or repulsion between charged particles.

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3. Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutron together in a nucleus. (positively charged protons
repel each other due to electromagnetic force. Strong nuclear force overcomes this electromagnetic
repulsion. So it is stronger than electromagnetic force )
4. Weak nuclear force is what binds the quarks together to make protons and neutrons.
»» According to Standard Model particles are not just building blocks of matter, they are also responsible
for interaction of matter. i.e particles called bosons are responsible for electromagnetic, strong-nuclear
and weak-nuclear forces.
IMPORTANT PARTICLES YOU OFTEN HEAR
HIGGS BOSON : THE GOD PARTICLE
»» Higgs boson is another particle that you must have heard of. Back in 1960s scientists predicted the
presence of a particle that is responsible for giving mass to other particles like electrons, quarks,
neutrinos etc. It was called Higgs boson.
»» Higgs boson was discovered in 2012 for which Nobel prize was conferred upon in 2013.
»» It is Higgs boson that gives mass to everything.
»» It is because of Higgs boson that big-bang happened and everything including you and me were created.
This is why it is aptly called the god particle.
NEUTRINO : THE GHOSTLY PARTICLES (IMPORTANT FOR PRELIMS 2024 AND AFTER)

WHAT ARE NEUTRINOS?

»» Neutrinos as you can see in the chart are fermions, particularly leptons.
»» Neutrinos are very light, nearly massless.
»» It is a lepton without a charge. (unlike electron which is a lepton with a charge)
»» Since they are within nucleus they are released whenever there is decay of the nucleus. (radioactivity)
»» Whenever a nucleus decays it can give rise to 3 kinds of radiation alpha, beta and gamma.
• Alpha : 2 protons and 2 Neutrons moving at high velocity. (very heavy and very fast so high
energy)
• Beta : Very fast electrons (not heavy but very fast)
• Gamma : High energy radiation (very fast)
»» Neutrinos are released whenever there is beta decay. i.e whenever nucleus of an atom decays with beta
radiation there is an accompanying stream of neutrinos.
»» Source : Stars, Supernovae, Galaxies, (even) Nuclear reactors.
WHAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT THEM?

»» Being almost massless and chargeless they don’t interact with matter. (unlike a photon which is stopped
by a wall, your hand, atmosphere etc or an electron which is neutralized by a proton) So everything is
transparent to neutrinos.
»» Neutrinos pass through everything unimpeded.
»» Note : Every other subatomic particle interacts with matter and is affected by it in some way or the
other. (absorb, reflect or deflect)
3. Space Telescopes.
»» Space : It is a three dimensional region that begins where the earth’s atmosphere ends.
»» A telescope is an optical tool that observes distant objects using lenses, curved mirrors, or a combination
of the two.

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Hubble Telescope :

»» Since its launch, the observatory has produced important discoveries in the area of astronomy. It is the
first big optical telescope to be mounted in space.
»» It takes photographs of deep space and aids scientists with their understanding of the cosmos by seeing
the furthest stars, galaxies, and planets.
James Webb Telescope :

»» NASA’s primary infrared observatory is the James Webb

Space Telescope (JWST).
»» NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the
Canadian Space Agency (CSA) are working together on
this project.
It will :

• Look for the first galaxies or bright objects that appeared

after the Big Bang.
• Determine the evolution of galaxies.
• Observe the evolution of stars from their earliest
beginnings through the development of planetary
systems.
• Measure the physical and chemical features of planetary
systems, including our own Solar System, and look into
the possibility of life elsewhere.
Event Horizon Telescope project:

»» EHT is a group of 8 radio telescopes used to detect radio waves from space.
»» In 2019, Scientists from the EHT project released the first- ever optical image (or shadow image) of a
Black hole located in the center of galaxy Messier 87 in the constellation Virgo.
»» Sagittarius A* is the 2nd black hole to get photographed.

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4. Gravity And Black Hole :
BLACKHOLES :

»» We have seen how blackholes are formed in the dying stage of a star’s life cycle.
»» A dying star (leftover core) having more than three times the mass of the Sun undergoes a gravitational
collapse, leading to the creation of a black hole.
»» As the star’s matter becomes compressed to enormous densities, the strength of gravity at the surface
of the rapidly contracting star also increases dramatically.
»» According to the general theory of relativity, this massive contracting star has a profound effect on the
spacetime immediately surrounding the star.
»» While the spacetime surrounding the black hole becomes so highly curved that it closes on itself,
blackhole itself is a place in spacetime where there is collapse of gravity.
BEHAVIOUR OF LIGHT AND MATTER NEAR A BLACKHOLE :

»» Light from the blockhole trying to fly outward will arc back inward stopping the light to escape from it.
»» This is true even with ordinary matter that have much lesser speeds than light.
»» They all disappear in the blackhole.
»» Anything that comes close to a blackhole gets sucked into it. How close? The boundary beyond which
this happens is called the event horizon beyond which there is no return for matter or electromagnetic
radiation.
»» Further while inside the blackhole gravity collapses, around the blackhole gravity is very strong as a
result of which it accretes matter (sucks in) from its surroundings.
»» This matter that is about to fall into a black hole (before crossing event horizon) forms a disk around
it, called an accretion disk.
SO WHAT IS A BLACKHOLE?

»» Blackholes are just one-way geometric surfaces like mirrors created by gravitational collapse due to
high gravitational field. Once you go towards it there is no way you can come out of it. (Not like doors

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which are 2-way surfaces, you go in and come back)

»» The area surrounding blackholes are massive, high in gravitational field and violent. Inside the
blackhole, nobody knows what is going on.
»» There are supermassive blackholes in middle of galaxies including milky way which has a blackhole
that is formed out of core of mass equal to 3 billion solar mass.
»» A supermassive black hole is the one whose mass is millions to billion times the mass of the sun.
5. Gravitational Waves (Gw) :
»» Electric charges oscillating up & down produce electromagnetic radiation. In a similar way, general
theory of relativity predicts that oscillating massive objects should produce gravitational radiation, or
gravitational waves.
»» Gravitational waves are ripples in overall geometry of space and time produced by moving masses.
(similar to ripples in water pond)
»» Gravitational radiation is exceedingly difficult to detect because gravity by nature is much weaker than
electromagnetic radiation. (1050 times weaker)
HOW ARE GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE PRODUCED?

»» Cosmic events that produce such ripples are exploding stars, collisions between ultra-dense neutron
stars or merging black holes or supernovae.
»» While Einstein predicted the presence of gravitational radiation it was only in 2016, that for the 1st time
gravitational waves were detected.
»» These radiation came from merger of two neutron stars.
GRAVITATIONAL WAVE ASTRONOMY SIGNIFICANCE :

»» Discovery of gravitational waves is beginning of new era in astronomy. So far, all observations of
universe are made through electromagnetic radiation emitted from objects from visible light to ‘gamma
rays.
»» Gravitational waves are a new way of “seeing” what happens in space.
»» We can now detect events that would otherwise leave little to no observable light, like black hole
collisions.
GRAVITATIONAL WAVE OBSERVATORIES LIGO :

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»» Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) is designed to detect gravitational waves.

»» LIGO detectors use laser interferometry to measure minute ripples in space-time caused by gravitational
wave.
»» LIGO has detected the gravitational twice now, the second time witnessing the merging of a second
black hole pair.

LISA PATHFINDER :

»» LISA stands for Laser Interferometer Space Antenna.

»» It is project led by European Space Agency to a build a space-based observatory for detecting
gravitational waves.
»» It will consist of three spacecrafts separated by 2.5 million km in an equilateral triangular formation.
»» It is expected to be launched in 2037.
Key Terms
1. Kuiper Belt :
• The Kuiper Belt is a ring of icy rocks & dust bodies just outside of Neptune’s orbit, known as
Kuiper belt objects or trans-neptunians.
• Pluto is the largest known Kuiper Belt Object instead of the 9th planet of our Solar system.
• There are bits of rock and ice, comets, and dwarf planets.
2. Asteroid Belt :
• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation mainly composed of refractory rocky and metallic
minerals and some ice, that circle the sun in a zone lying between Mars and Jupiter.

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• The circular chain of asteroids is called the asteroid belt or main asteroid belt.
3. Ploonets:
• A celestial object, which are orphaned moons that have escaped the bonds of their planetary parents.
• The researchers explain that the angular momentum between the planet and its moon results in the
moon escaping the gravitational pull of its parent planet.
4. Goldilocks Zone :
• The ‘Goldilocks Zone,’ or habitable zone – ‘the region around the star where a planet could sustain
liquid water on its surface’.
• Our Earth is in the Sun’s Goldilocks zone.
• If Earth were where the dwarf planet Pluto is, all its water would freeze; on the other hand, if Earth
were where Mercury is, all its water would boil off.
5. Kessler Syndrome:
• The Kessler syndrome is a theory proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978, used to
describe a self- sustaining cascading collision of space debris in LEO
6. Asteroids :
• Big chunks of rocks float through space and orbit the sun, mostly found in the main asteroid belt
i.e., between Mars and Jupiter.
• The biggest one is Ceres (940 km wide), twice as big as the Grand Canyon.
7. Meteor :
• When a meteoroid enters the earth’s atmosphere, it begins to burn up and falls to the ground.
• This burning trail is known as meteor or falling stars.
8. Meteoroid :
• Smaller rock pieces that break off from an asteroid, float through interplanetary space.
• Can be as small as grain of sand or as large as a meter across.
9. Meteorite :
• If a meteoroid rock doesn’t completely burn up as it falls to Earth- the rock left behind is called a
meteorite.
10. Comets :
• Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of dust, rock and ices,
ranging from few miles to tens of miles wide.
• Orbits closer to the sun, they heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head visible in the
atmosphere.
• Comets have highly elliptical orbits, unlike planets which have near-circular orbits.
11. Van Allen Radiation Belts :
• It is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the solar wind.
• The particles are captured by and held around a planet by that planet’s magnetic field. These are
intense over the Equator and are absent over the poles
6. Orbits :
»» An orbit is the curved path that an object in space (such as a star, planet, moon, asteroid or spacecraft)
takes around another object due to gravity.
»» Objects of similar mass orbit each other with neither object at the center, whilst small objects orbit

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around larger objects.

»» In our Solar System, the Moon orbits Earth, and Earth orbits the Sun, but that does not mean the larger
object remains completely still.
»» Because of gravity, Earth is pulled slightly from its centre by the Moon (which is why tides form in our
oceans) and our Sun is pulled slightly from its centre by Earth and other planets.
»» The height of the orbit, or distance between the satellite and Earth’s surface, determines how quickly the
satellite moves around the Earth. An Earth-orbiting satellite’s motion is mostly controlled by Earth’s
gravity.
»» The orbits can be categorized as High Earth orbit, Medium Earth orbit, or Low Earth orbit based on the
height of satellites from the earth.
1. Low Earth Orbit :

• An orbit that is relatively close to Earth’s surface. It is normally at an altitude of less than 1000 km
but could be as low as 160 km above Earth.
• LEO is commonly used for communication and remote sensing satellite systems, as well as the
International Space Station (ISS) and Hubble Space Telescope.
• Satellites placed in LEO orbit generally circle the Earth once in 90 minutes.
2. Middle Earth Orbit :

• Medium Earth orbit comprises a wide range of orbits anywhere between LEO and GEO.
• It is similar to LEO in that it also does not need to take specific paths around Earth, and it is used
by a variety of satellites with many different applications.
• The range of this orbit is between 2000 km - 35,780km.
• Generally, it takes 12 hours for the satellite to complete one rotation around the Earth.
• MEO is commonly used for navigation systems, including the U.S. Global Positioning System
(GPS).
3. High Earth Orbit:

• When a satellite reaches 42,164 kilometers from the Earth’s center (about 36,000 kilometers from
the surface), it is said to be in high Earth orbit.
• Because satellites in this orbit provide a steady view of the same surface, geostationary orbit is
particularly useful for weather monitoring and communication (phones, television, radio).
• At this height, the orbital height of the satellite becomes equal to the Earth’s rotational speed.
• So, this orbit at this height is called a geosynchronous or Geostationary Orbit.
4. Geostationary Orbit:

• A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO).

• A geosynchronous orbit is a high Earth orbit that allows satellites to match Earth’s rotation. Located
at 22,236 miles (35,786 kilometers) above Earth’s equator.
• Because the satellite orbits at the same speed that the Earth is turning, the satellite seems to stay in
place over a single longitude.
5. Polar orbit and Sun Synchronous orbit (SSO):

• Satellites in polar orbits usually travel past Earth from north to south rather than from west to east,
passing roughly over Earth’s poles.
• Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes between 200 to 1000 km.
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• Satellites in SSO, traveling over the polar regions, are synchronous with the Sun. This means they
are synchronized to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun. This means that the
satellite always visits the same spot at the same local time.
• This means that the satellite will always observe a point on the Earth as if constantly at the same
time of the day.
• It serves a number of applications; for example, it means that scientists and those who use the
satellite images can compare how something changes over time.
6. Transfer orbits and Geostationary Transfer Orbit:

• Transfer orbits are used to get from one orbit to another.

• When satellites are launched from Earth and carried to space with launch vehicles, the satellites are
not always placed directly on their final orbit.
• Often, the satellites are instead placed on a transfer orbit: an orbit where, by using relatively little
energy from built- in motors, the satellite or spacecraft can move from one orbit to another.
• This allows a satellite to reach, for example, a high-altitude orbit like GEO without actually needing
the launch vehicle to go all the way to this altitude, which would require more effort.
7. Lagrange point :

• Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two body system like the
Sun and the Earth produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.
• These can be used by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
• Lagrange points are named in honor of Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange.
• There are five special points where a small mass can orbit in a constant pattern with two larger
masses.
8. Halo Orbit: It is an orbit around the Lagrange points -

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7. Types Of Satellites :
TYPES OF SATELLITES :

»» Satellites can be classified by their function since they are launched into space to do a specific job.
»» There are nine different types of satellites i.e.
1. Communications Satellite
2. Remote Sensing Satellite
3. Navigation Satellite
4. Geocentric Orbit type satellites - LEO, MEO, HEO
5. Global Positioning System (GPS)
6. Geostationary Satellites (GEOs)
7. Ground Satellite
8. Polar Satellite
9. Nano Satellites, CubeSats and SmallSats
8. Space Technology In India :
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) :

»» Nodal space research agency of Government of India

»» Founded on 15th August, 1969.
»» Headquarter: Bengaluru, Karnataka
»» Managed by the Department of Space (DOS), which reports directly to the PM.
Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (In-Space):

»» The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) was established by the
Indian government to encourage private sector participation in a wide range of space activities.
»» It will regulate and encourage Indian industry and startups to construct routine satellites, rockets, and
commercial launch services
»» It will have its own technical, legal, safety and security, monitoring, and activity promotion directorates.
»» It will serve as a liaison between ISRO and private parties, assessing how India’s space resources might
be best utilized and space-based activities expanded.
New Space India Limited (NSIL) :

»» It is ISRO’s commercial arm, with the primary goal of enabling Indian businesses to participate in
hightech space activities.
»» It is completely owned by the Government of India, which reports to the Department of Space (DOS).
»» NSIL will collaborate with IN-SPACe to enable industry consortiums to take on some of ISRO’s
responsibilities.
»» • Antrix: Antrix was founded in 1992 as a government-owned private limited corporation with the
mission of promoting and commercializing space products, providing technical consulting services,
and transferring ISRO-developed technologies.
9. Types Of Launch Vehicles By Isro :
»» Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space.
»» India has two operational launchers: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous

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Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

»» In India there are 4 generations of launch vehicles :
• 1st Generation: Satellite launch vehicles.
• 2nd generation: Augmented satellite launch vehicle
• 3rd generation: Polar satellite launch vehicle(PSLV)
• 4th Generation: Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle(GSLV)
»» Primarily used to launch remote sensing satellites.
»» Most famous launches by the PSLV:
• Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and
• Mangalyaan/Mars Orbiter Mission in 2013.
»» PSLV-C37 launched 104 satellites on February 15, 2017, the highest number of satellites launched in a
single flight so far.

1. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV):

»» GSLV is a 3-stage Launch vehicle with solid fuel in the 1st stage, liquid in the 2nd stage and cryogenic
in the 3rd stage.
»» It was developed primarily to launch communication satellites (INSAT Series) of 2.5-tonne class in
Geostationary Transfer Orbit and about 4.5 tons class in Low Earth Orbit.
2. GSLV Mk II:

»» This is the largest launch vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation.
»» This fourth-generation launch vehicle is a three-stage vehicle with four liquid strap-ons.
»» The indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
»» Liftoff mass: 4.14 tones.
3. GSLV Mk III:

»» This is a 3-stage heavy-lift rocket with an indigenous cryogenic engine in the 3rd stage.
»» GSLV Mk III (ISRO’s Fat boy) is designed to carry 4-ton class of satellites into Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the capability
of the GSLV Mk II.

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»» Most famous launches : injected Chandrayaan-2, India’s second Lunar Mission, into Earth Parking
Orbit on July 22, 2019, from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
»» Further, India’s first human space flight Gaganyaan to be launched using GSLV Mk III in 2022.
4. Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV):

»» Designed by ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, to launch payload capacity of 500 kg to Low Earth
orbit & 300 kg to Sun-synchronous orbit for launching small satellites.
»» Objective: to commercially launch small satellites at a lower price and higher launch rate as compared
to PSLV.
»» Unlike the PSLV and GSLV, the SSLV can be assembled both vertically and horizontally.
»» The first three stages of the vehicle will use a solid propellant, with a fourth stage being a velocitytrimming
module.
10. Rocket Fuel :

»» The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is using the very poisonous and corrosive fuel UDMH
(Unsymmetrical Di-Methyl Hydrazine), combined with the oxidiser nitrogen Tetroxide. This is referred
to as a “dirty combo.”
»» Other space programmes throughout the world have switched to a cleaner and greener fuel, liquid
methane or kerosene.
»» Changing to liquid methane would need the usage of a cryogenic engine, as any gas must be stored at
extremely low temperatures to remain liquefied.
Propellant Used in Rocket :

»» The propellant is a chemical mixture that comprises a fuel and an oxidizer that is burned to provide
thrust in rockets.
»» For propulsion, fuel is a substance that burns when mixed with an oxidizer. o The oxidizer is a substance
that releases oxygen in order to be combined with a fuel. The mixture ratio is the proportion of oxidizer
to fuel.
»» The condition of a propellant is classified as liquid, solid, or hybrid.
Liquid Propellant :

»» The fuel and oxidizer are stored separately in a liquid

propellant rocket and delivered to a combustion chamber
by a system of pipes, valves, and turbopumps, where they
are mixed and burned to produce thrust.
»» Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases kept at
extremely low temperatures, with the most common fuel
being liquid hydrogen (LH2) and the oxidizer being liquid
oxygen (LO2 or LOX).
»» At temperatures of -253 C (-423 F), hydrogen remains
liquid, while oxygen remains liquid at temperatures of
-183 C. (-297 F).
Solid propellant :

»» rockets are the most basic of rocket designs. They are made of a steel casing loaded with a mixture of
solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) that burn rapidly and produce thrust by ejecting hot gases from a
nozzle.
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»» Hybrid propellant engines are a type of engine that falls somewhere between solid and liquid propellant
engines. One of the components is solid, which is generally the fuel, and the other is liquid, which is
usually the oxidizer.
Types of Engine :

1. Cryogenic Engine:

• A cryogenic rocket engine uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidizer, which means the fuel or oxidizer (or
both) are gases that have been liquefied and kept at extremely low temperatures.
• In comparison to solid and earth-storable liquid propellant rocket stages, cryogenic rocket stages
are more efficient and produce greater thrust per kilogramme of propellant burned.
2. Air Breathing Engines :

• In the burning of fuel, air-breathing engines utilise oxygen from the environment. The turbojet,
turboprop, ramjet, and pulse-jet are among them.
• Other methods in use are heavier, less efficient, and less cost-effective than this one.
Types of Air Breathing Engines :

1. Ramjet : A ramjet is a type of air-breathing jet engine that

compresses incoming air for combustion without the use of a
revolving compressor.At supersonic speeds, ramjets are most
efficient, but at hypersonic speeds, they are ineffective.
2. Scramjet : A scramjet engine is superior than a ramjet engine
because it can run at hypersonic speeds while still allowing
supersonic combustion.
3. Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) : is a kind of jet engine that converts
from a ramjet to a scramjet over the Mach 4-8 range, allowing it
to function efficiently in both subsonic and supersonic combustion modes.
11. International Space Station
»» The International Space Station (ISS) is
a low-Earth- orbiting, habitable artificial
satellite.
»» NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia),
JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA
(Canada) are among the five space agencies
involved in the project.
»» The station serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory, where astrobiology,
astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields are studied.
»» On board the ISS, the atmosphere is identical to that of Earth.
Recent Developments :

»» India is seeking to launch its own space station by 2030, joining the league of US, Russia, and China
to an elite space club.
»» China has launched an unmanned module of its permanent space station, which it intends to finish by
the end of 2022.

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»» The module, called Tianhe or Harmony of the Heavens was launched on China’s heaviest carrier
rocket, the Long March 5B.
12. Exploration Of The Sun :
»» The Sun is an ordinary star with a radiating surface area that emits a tremendous amount of radiation,
mainly at visible wavelengths, due to its high temperature of 5800 K.
»» Its luminosity, which is the total amount of energy emitted per second, is about 3.9*10^26 watts.
»» The Sun’s core is where the thermonuclear reaction occurs, which is the fundamental source of the
Sun’s tremendous energies that it radiates into space.
»» In the Sun’s core, atomic nuclei fuse together to form larger nuclei at extremely high temperatures
exceeding 10^7 K.
»» The energy produced in the core is transported via radiative diffusion to a distance of about 0.71 R
(radius) and by convection between 0.71 R and 1.00 R.

MISSIONS TO Sun :

ADITYA-L1 :

»» India’s 1st first mission to sun to be launched in mid2023

»» Its main objective is to study the upper atmosphere of sun including solar corona and chromosphere.
»» As a result, it observes solar activities including coronal heating, coronal mass ejection, solar winds,
solar flares etc. and their influence on space weather.
POSITION OF ADITYA-L1 :

»» Placed in a halo orbit around the first Lagrange (L1) point, about 1.5 million Km from earth.
»» It enables to study sun continuously without any obstruction due to occultation or eclipse.
SPACE DEBRIS, KESSLER SYNDROME AND IS4OM (IMP FOR PRELIMS) :

»» ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Operation

»» It is a control center set up in Bangalore to trace, track, deflect and remove space debris harmful to
space assets.
»» It is aimed at improving India’s Space Situational Awareness & Management (SSAM) in view of
increasing space debris

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SPACE DEBRIS AND KESSLER SYNDROME :

»» Space debris is defined as any non-functional manmade object that could pose the risk of unintended
collision to operational spacecraft in Earth orbit or those transiting that region to or from an interplanetary
mission.
»» As the number and density of spacecraft in orbit increase so does the risk of collision.
»» The runaway effect if debris from one collision causing another, generating more debris and further
collisions is called the Kessler Syndrome.
ASTROSAT :

»» India’s 1st dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory.

»» Studies outer space objects in X-ray, limited optical and UV spectrum.
»» The 1500-odd kg satellite is launched into a 650 km orbit. MAIN OBJECTIVES
»» To estimate magnetic field of neutron stars
»» Study of binary star system
»» Study of regions where stars are born
EXPOSAT :

»» ExpoSAT is a multi-wavelength space observatory to study the deep space.

»» It is planned as the successor to Astrosat.
»» It will explore X-ray sources in the universe.
»» It will study neutron stars, supernova remnants, pulsars, black holes in multiple wavelengths.
SHUKRAYAAN :

»» ISRO’s planned orbiter to Venus.

Main goals are to study :

• atmosphere and its chemistry

• Surface and sub-surface features
• Interaction of the planet with solar radiation.
13. Missions To Moon :
»» Numerous space missions have been launched to explore Earth’s natural satellite as part of human
exploration of the Moon.
»» The Soviet Union’s Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to reach the Moon’s surface safely.
»» Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to make a controlled soft landing, while Luna 10 was the first mission
to enter orbit, both in 1966.
»» Crewed missions to the Moon were carried out by the United States as part of the Apollo programme
between 1968 and 1972. Apollo 8 was the first crewed mission to enter orbit in 1968.
»» Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon during Apollo 11 in July 1969. So far, 24
humans have visited this massive landmass, 12 have walked on it.
CHANDRAYAAN MISSION
Chandrayaan 1 :

»» ISRO’s 1st mission to the moon.

»» It is a lunar orbiter best known for helping to discover evidence of water molecules on the moon.

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»» Orbited the moon for almost a year (between October 2008 and August 2009).
»» Major goals : to collect data on moon’s geology, mineralogy and topography.
Chandrayaan 2 :

»» 2nd lunar exploration and 1st lander and rover mission of ISRO.
»» Lunar Orbiter-Lander-Rover mission of India.
»» India’s 1st inter-planetary mission to land a rover on any celestial body.
»» Chandrayaan 2 is the world’s 1st lunar mission to the South Pole of the Moon’s near side.
Lander: ‘Vikram’ and Rover named ‘Pragyan’ :

• The lander-rover integrated module was supposed to soft-land near south pole (about 600 km) of
the moon
• The 6-wheeled rover was planned to spend one lunar day or 14 Earth days on the moon’s surface
and walk up to 150-200 km.
• However a last-minute software glitch led to crashlading of Vikram and Pragyan.
IMPORTANT MISSIONS OF NASA
DART Mission :

»» Double Asteroid Redirection Test Mission

»» It is a kinetic impactor technique to change the motion of an asteroid to prevent its impact on Earth.
»» It will impact on the small moon of asteroid Didymos.
HAMMER :

»» Hypervelocity Asteroid Mitigation Mission for Emergency Response vehicle.

It is a spacecraft designed to serve as :

1. Kinetic impactor, essentially a ram that can be used to nudge the asteroid from its path. or
2. As a transport vehicle for a nuclear device to annihilate the asteroid before it reaches the earth
Europa Clipper (important) :

»» Spacecraft to conduct a detailed survey of Jupiter’s moon Europa.

»» It is aimed at assessing the suitability of Europa’s underground ocean to harbour life. Characteristics
of Europa
»» Icy Planet
»» Hubble Space Telescope observed water vapor above Europa.
»» It means that it has a subsurface ocean.
MESSENGER :

»» Mission to Mercury Short for MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging
Cassini Huygens
»» Joint mission of NASA, ESA and Italian Space Agency to Saturn
»» Final flyby in 2017
»» 1st spacecraft to observe presence of hydrocarbon rains, rivers, lakes and seas on Titan.
»» Discovery Mars lander and Rover Mission
»» InSights Mars’ lander mission under Discovery programme, Landed near the equator of Mars to study
its interior.
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14. Missions To Mars
Missions to Mars :

»» Mars Exploration Rovers ‘Spirit’ and ‘Opportunity’.

»» Viking Mission also flew past Mars
»» MAVEN: Mars Atmosphere And Volatile Evolution Mission Opportunity
»» Mars Rover Mission.
»» Formal ended recently Curiosity Mars Rover Mission NASA’s Mission to Venus
»» Mariner 2 : 1st flyby of Venus in 1962
»» Magellan : Orbiter Mission
India’ s Missions on Mars
1. Mangalyaan :

ISRO launched the Mars Orbiter Mission, commonly known as Mangalyaan, on November 5,
2013. (ISRO). On September 24, 2014, it was successfully placed into Martian orbit.
2. Voyager Mission :

• The twin spacecraft Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were launched by NASA in separate months in the
summer of 1977 from Cape Canaveral, Florida.
• As originally designed, the Voyagers were to conduct closeup studies of Jupiter and Saturn, Saturn’s
rings, and the larger moons of the two planets.
• During planetary flybys, Voyager 2 is the only probe that has ever studied Neptune and Uranus.It
is the world’s second man-made object to orbit the sun.
• Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to have visited all four gas giant planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune — and found 16 moons, as well as phenomena such as Neptune’s seemingly ephemeral
Great Dark Spot, Europa’s ice shell fissures, and ring structures on each planet.
15. Gaganyaan Mission :
»» Gaganyaan is an Indian Space Research Organisation mission (ISRO).
»» Three Gaganyaan flights will be sent into orbit, according to the Gaganyaan programme.
»» Two unmanned missions and one human spaceflight are planned.
»» Three Indian astronauts, including a woman, will be aboard the Gaganyaan system module, dubbed the
Orbital Module.
»» For 5-7 days, it will orbit Earth in a low-earth-orbit at a distance of 300-400 kilometres.
»» The three-stage heavy lift launch vehicle GSLV Mk III, also known as the LVM-3 (Launch Vehicle
Mark-3), will be utilised to launch Gaganyaan because it has the appropriate payload capabilities.
»» Gaganyaan’s important missions, including as the test vehicle flight to validate the crew escape system’s
performance and Gaganyaan’s first uncrewed mission (G1), are planned for the second half of next year
(2022).
»» The second uncrewed trip, which will contain Vyommitra, a spacefaring human robot, will launch at
the end of 2022.
16. Irnss-Navic :
»» The Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) satellite system is an autonomous regional navigation
satellite system that provides location data in the Indian area and 1500 kilometers surrounding the
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Indian landmass.
»» IRNSS would offer two types of services Standard Positioning Services, which would be available to
all users, and Restricted Services, which would only be available to permitted users. There are seven
satellites in all. Three will be geostationary above the Indian Ocean and four will be geosynchronous.
»» This setup assures that at any one moment, at least one of fourteen ground stations is tracking each
satellite, with a good likelihood that most of them will be visible from anywhere in India.
17. Space Technology And Disaster Management :
»» Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information (GEMINI) device.
»» GEMINI is a portable satellite receiver connected to ISRO spacecraft. Because the gadget can send
signals up to 300 nautical miles, fishermen beyond the signal range of their phone providers (i.e. 10-12
km) may also obtain warnings and alarms.
»» It will make satellite-based communication easier, which will be especially important in the event of
storms, strong seas, or tsunamis.
»» The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and the Airports Authority of India collaborated on
GAGAN.
»» It is India’s first satellite-based global positioning system, relying on the GSAT satellites of ISRO.
»» The disadvantage of this technology is that it only permits one-way communication, which means that
fishermen cannot use it to make calls.

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8. Defense and Technology

Topics Covered

1. Defence Organisation 4. Air Defence Systems.

2. Indian Missile System. 5. Submarines & Projects By Navy
3. Other Missiles 6. Coastal Radar Network

1. Organisation
»» Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
»» DRDO is the R&D wing of the Ministry of Defence, Government of India.
»» Established in 1958.
Defence Innovation Organisation :

»» It is a ‘not for profit’ company registered under Section 8 of the Companies Act 2013.
»» Its two founding members are Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) & Bharat Electronics Limited
(BEL) - Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs).
»» Nuclear Triad : A three-sided military-force structure consisting of land- launched nuclear missiles,
nuclear-missile-armed submarines, and strategic aircraft with nuclear bombs and missiles.
Land Based Agni; Agni-I; Agni-II; Agni III; Agni- IV; ICBM - Agni-V; SLBM - Sagarika (K-15); Cruise –
Brahmos Supersonic etc.
Sea Based Arihant class submarine
Air Based Mig-27 Etc.

CRUISE MISSILE BALLISTIC MISSILE

A cruise missile is guided towards a preset A ballistic missile is generally a projectile shot up in the
landbased target using a navigation system. atmosphere.

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Cruise missiles are known for low altitude flight Ballistic missiles are launched outside the atmosphere
and high mobility and hence the name. where its warheads detach and hit the target. (uses
gravity of earth and thus traces a parabolic path and
hence the name)
Cruise missile have short ranges of 300 to Ballistic missile have long ranges upto 1000 km (ICBMs)
1000 km Brahmos – 290 to 450 km Nirbhay – Agni V – 5000 km
700 to 1000
Easy to intercept because of high terminal Difficult to intercept due to high terminal speeds of 5000
speeds. m/s
High precision due to navigation system Low precision
Cheaper and thus suitable for firing conven- Expensive and thus suitable for firing nuclear warheads.
tional warheads

2. Indian Missile System :

»» Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul Ka-
lam to enable India attain self-sufficiency in missile technology, in response to the Missile Technology
Control Regime.
»» IGMDP was started in 1983 and completed in March 2012.
»» It developed 5 types of missiles under it

1. Prithvi :

• Tactical surface-to-surface short range ballistic missile.

• First missile developed under IGMDP in 1983.
• Uses either liquid or both liquid and solid fuels and are capable of carrying conventional as well as

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nuclear warheads.
• Prithvi I- Army version-150 km range
• Prithvi II- Air force version-350 km range Prithvi III- Naval version-600 km range
2. Agni :

• It is an intercontinental surface-to-surface, nuclear capable ballistic missile developed by DRDO.

• At present, US, China, Russia, UK, France and Israel are known to have ICBMs.
• It has been equipped with very high accuracy.
• Ring Laser Gyro based Inertial Navigation System (RINS) and Micro Navigation System (MINS).
3. Trishul :

• Short range surface-to-air missile for Indian Navy used for Immediate combat action.
• Range - 9km.
• Currently not in service.
4. Nag :

• Anti-tank guided missile developed by DRDO

• Range - 4km.
• 3rd generation ‘fire and forget’ guided missile where the target is identified and designated before
the weapon is launched.
• It is an all-weather condition with day and night capabilities.
• Launched from land and air-based platforms.
5. Akash :

• Group of 4 medium range surface-to-air missiles with a radar called Rajendra.

• Multi-target engagement capacity. Radar detects incoming objects and missiles are fired.
• Range – 30 km. Altitudes up to 18000 m.
• Already in use.
SURFACE TO SURFACE MISSILES
Name Type Range
Prithvi I Short Range Ballistic missile 150 km
Prithvi II Short Range Ballistic missile 250 km
Prithvi III Short Range Ballistic missile 350 km
Dhanush variant of the surface-to-surface or ship- 350 km
to-ship Prithvi III missile

AIR-TO-AIR MISSILES
Name Type Operational Range Speed
MICA Air To Air 500m – 80 km Mach 4
Astra Air To Air 80-100 km Mach 4.5+
K-100 / Novator Medium Range Air to Air 300-400 km Mach 3.3

SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES
Name Type Operational Range Speed
Agni-I Medium Range Ballistic Missile 700 -1500 km Mach 7.5
Agni-II Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile 2000 -3000 km Mach 12

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Agni-III Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile 3500 – 5000 km 5-6 km/s

Agni-IV Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile 3000-4000 km Mach 7
Agni- V Intercontinental Ballistic Missile 5000 – 8000 km Mach 24
Dhanush Short-Range Ballistic Missile 350-600 km
Shaurya Medium Range Ballistic Missile 750-1900 km
Prahaar Short Range Ballistic Missile 150 km

CRUISE MISSILES
Name Type Range Speed
BrahMos
(India-Russia) Fastest Supersonic Cruise Missile in
the world
Multiplatform : Ship, 290 km 2.8 -3 Mach
submarine, aircraft and
land.
BrahMos II Hypersonic cruise missile(Ship, sub- 300km 7 Mach
marine, aircraft and land)
Nirbhay Subsonic cruise missile (Ship, subma- 1,000 -1500 km 0.8 Mach
rine, aircraft and land)
BrahMos-A Air launched Cruise Missile 500 km
Brahmos-M Smaller variant of the air-launched 290 km
BrahMos
BrahMos-NG Mini version based on the existing 290 km
BrahMos

DEFENCE MISSILES
Name Type Range Speed
Prithvi Air Defence Exo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic missile Altitude- 80km Mach 5+
Prithvi Defence Vehicle Exo-atmospheric Anti-ballistic missile Altitude- 150km Mach 4.5
Advanced Air Defence Endoatmospheric Anti-ballistic missile Altitude- 30km

SUBMARINE LAUNCHED BALLISTIC MISSILES

Name Type Range Speed
Ashwin Ballistic Missile 150-200 km Mach 4.5
Sagarika (K – 15) Ballistic Missile 700 – 1900 Km
K4 Ballistic Missile 3,500–5,000 km
K5 Ballistic Missile 6000 km

ANTI-TANK MISSILES
Name Type Range Speed
Amogha 1 Anti-Tank Guided Missile 2.8 km
Nag Anti Tank Guided Missile 4 km 230 m/s
Helina Anti Tank Guided Missile 7 – 8 km
Ashwin Ballistic Missile Interceptor or Ad- Ballistic Missile interceptor / 150+ km
vanced Air Defence (AAD) anti aircraft missile

3. Other Missiles :
1. Astra :

• Astra is an all-weather beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM)

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• Range - 80km.
• Payload capacity: 15 kg.
• First indigenously developed missile of India
• Uses solid fuel ducted Ramjet and has BVRAAM (beyond visual range air-to-air missile)
technology.
• Can destroy enemy aircrafts at supersonic speed.
2. Prahaar:

• Solid-fuel, surface-to-surface tactical ballistic missile

• Range - 150 km. Payload capacity - 200 to 500kg.
3. Pralay:

• Solid fuel surface-to-surface tactical missile.

• Payload - 1 tonne and has a range of 350 km.
4. Nirbhay:

• NIRBHAY is India’s first indigenous Long Range, all-weather, Sub-Sonic Cruise Missile,
• It can carry a warhead of 200 kg to 300 kg at a speed of 0.6 to 0.7 Mach with a launch weight of
about 1500 kg.
• It can avoid detection as it has the ability to cruise at heights as low as 100 m.
• Can be launched from multiple platforms and is capable of carrying conventional and nuclear
warheads.
• Two-stage missile powered by Solid rocket motor booster.
• Range of 1000 km.
5. Dhanush:

• It is also known as Prithvi-III.

• Sea-to-sea/surface short range ballistic missile.
• Range - 350 km.
• Capable of carrying nuclear as well as conventional warheads.
6. Brahmos Missile System :

• BRAHMOS is a joint venture between the Defence Research and Development Organisation of
India (DRDO) and the NPOM of Russia.
• Named after the rivers Brahmaputra (India) and Moskva (Russia).
• Two-stage (solid propellant engine in the first stage and liquid ramjet in second) air-to-surface
missile.
• Range - around 300 km.
• Speed - Mach 2.8
• India’s entry into the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) has extended the range of the
BRAHMOS missile to reach 450 km-600km.
• Can be launched from land, air, and sea and is a multi-capability missile with pinpoint accuracy that
works in both day and night irrespective of the weather conditions.
• Operates on the “Fire and Forgets” principle.

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• One of the fastest cruise missiles currently operationally deployed.

• Lower target dispersion and quicker engagement.
• Low radar signature.
7. Pinaka Missile System:

• Indigenous multi-barrel rocket launch system, for the Indian Army by DRDO
• The navigation system - aided by the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
• Range is more than 70 km.
8. Rudra M-I:

• It is the first indigenous anti-radiation missile of the country.

• Range of up to 200 km depending upon the launch conditions.
• Can be launched from altitudes of 500 m to 15 km and speeds of 0.6 to 2 mach.
• Can locate and target any radiation-emitting source like enemy radars, communication sites and
other Radio Frequency (RF) emitting targets. Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT) Mission Shakti:
• To develop highly potent Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT).
• It is a joint programme of DRDO and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• Anti-satellite (ASAT) System is a missile-based system to attack moving satellites.
• ASAT propels India to the coveted space-superpower league.
• India will now have the power to decimate satellites for pure military and strategic purposes.
• India will have the capability to interfere with satellites or engage in direct attacks.
• ASAT missiles can be air, sea or land based.
• Can also help in creating nuclear missile deterrence.
• In March 2019, India successfully tested its ASAT missile.
• joining a select group of nations – USA, Russia and China with a similar technology.
• India used the Kinetic Kill space technology.
• The ASAT missile destroyed a live satellite in Low Earth orbit (283-kilometre).
• As per DRDO, the missile is capable of shooting down targets moving at a speed of 10 km per
second at an altitude as high as 1200 km.
4. Air Defence Systems :
2-tier missile defence system :

»» Aimed at intercepting aerial threat from ballistic missiles that have ranges upto 5000km at altitudes
both outside (exo) and inside (endo) the atmosphere
»» 1st layer : Endo o The single stage solid rocket-propelled Advanced Air Defence (AAD) low-altitude
interceptormissile. (Ashwin) o The AAD interceptor missile is primarily designed to intercept enemy
missiles in the endo-atmosphere at altitudes of 20-40 kilometers.
»» 2nd layer : Exo o Prithvi Air Defense Vehicle known as Pradyumna Ballistic Missile Interceptor is
designed to destroy missiles with ranges 300-2000 km at exoatmosphere (about 80km altitude).
• For higher altitudes upto 150 km, Agni-V-based ballistic interceptors would be used. (because of
5000km range)

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Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme :

»» India’s BMD development began in 1999, after the Kargil war.

»» It is a two-tiered defence system and will be able to intercept any incoming missile launched 5,000 km
away.
»» Prithvi Air Defence (PAD): It’s designed for High altitude interception (exo-atmospheric interception).
»» Advanced Air Defence (AAD): It’s endo-atmospheric interception system (for low altitude intercep-
tion).
S-400 Triumf Missile System Russia - It is a mobile, surface-to-air missile
system.
THAAD-Terminal High Altitude Area Defence US- a transportable, ground- based
system
Iron Dome Aerial Defence System Israel

5. Submarines and Projects By Navy :

CONVENTIONAL SUBMARINES OF INDIA :

PROJECT 75-I :

»» 6 Scorpene class submarines are being constructed with Transfer of Technology from France
»» The 6 Scorpene class submarines will be the core of India’s conventional attack submarine arm.
6 Submarines of Project 75-I :

»» INS Kalavari – Inducted in 2017

»» INS Kandheri – To be inducted in May 2019
»» INS Karanj - Under trials, to be inducted by end of 2019
»» INS Vela – To be launched for trials in 2019
»» INS Vagir – Being manufactured and assembled.
»» INS Vagsheer - Being manufactured and assembled.
Significance

»» The submarines built under the project will be capable of

• Anti submarine warfare o Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance missions
• Underwater mining operations
»» Note : While the first four submarines will be conventional, the two will be equipped with the Air In-
dependent Propulsion (AIP) system in order to stay underwater for longer duration
»» The air-independent propulsion system will enable the submarines to stay submerged for longer dura-
tion and thus increase their operational range
»» NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINES - Nuclear submarines can be classified in to 2 categories
namely SSN and SSBN
i. SSN: (SUBMERSIBLE SHIP NUCLEAR)

»» SSNs are attack submarines

»» They are propelled by nuclear power.
»» They are capable of launching conventional weapons like torpedoes and cruise missiles

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ii. SSBN: (SUBMERSIBLE SHIP BALLISTIC NUCLEAR) :

»» SSBNs are also propelled by nuclear power.

»» They are usually equipped with nuclear weapons like ballistic missiles.
»» Therefore they are usually used as deterrents and not as attack submarines.
NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINE FLEET OF INDIA :

»» SSN FLEET
CHAKRA-I :

»» 1st nuclear-powered submarine to be inducted to Indian Navy.

CHAKRA-II :

»» 2nd nuclear submarine to be inducted into Indian Navy.

»» It was inducted in 2012
»» It is an advanced version of Chakra I with following features o It can displace twice the amount of water
compared to Chakra I, thereby higher operating depths.
• Higher speed of 30 knots
• The onboard nuclear reactor produces double the power.
• It has more advanced weapon system including tube-launched missiles.
• Chakra II is deployed with the Eastern Naval Command.
CHAKRA-III

»» India and Russia have signed agreement for leasing of Akula class nuclear powered submarine Chakra
III for $3 billion for at least 10 years.
»» Powered by 190 MW nuclear power SSBN FLEET Arihant
»» Under the Advanced Technology Vehicle programme, India has indigenously-built Arihant, SSBN.
India’s 1st nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine :

»» Displacement capacity of 6,000 tonnes.

»» Powered by an 83 MW pressurised light-water reactor with enriched uranium.
»» Formally inducted on November 2019 marking the Nuclear Triad capability of India.
»» Capable of launching K-15 Missile with a range of 750 km and K-4 ICBM with a range of 3,500 km.
Arighat
»» 2nd Arihant-class submarine built under Advanced Technology Vessel Program.
»» Powered by a pressurised water reactor
»» Maximum speed of 12–15 knots (22–28 km/h) when on surface and 24 knots (44 km/h) when sub-
merged
»» 4 launch tubes can carry up to 12 K-15 Sagarika missiles or 4 four of the underdevelopment K-4 mis-
siles POSEIDON Anti Submarine Warfare aircraft, which India plans to acquire from USA.
»» It is a boost to maritime ISR capabilities (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance)
»» Long-range maritime patrol aircraft capable of undersea surveillance from a height of upto 40000 ft.
»» It has operational speed of 450 mph and a range of 4,500 nautical miles.
»» It has an operational time of upto 10 hours.
»» It is equipped with Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars capable of engaging multiple

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targets simultaneously.
»» Magnetic Anomaly Detection (MAD) radar will help locate submarines in deep seas.
»» The India-version of Poseidon 8 is equipped with Harpoon Block-II missiles, MK-54 lightweight tor-
pedoes to enhance its anti-submarine warfare capability.
6. Coastal Radar Network :
»» The goal is to establish an information network and marine domain awareness in the strategically im-
portant Indian Ocean region.
»» This would also enable India to increase its capacity- building support to Indian Ocean littoral states.
»» The information gathered would eventually be sent into the Indian Ocean Region’s Information Fusion
Center.

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9. Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Topics Covered

1. Network 8. Edge Computing

2. Dark Net And Deep Web 9. Big Data & Data Mining
3. Metaverse 10. Computer Viruses
4. Basics Of Computers 11. Mobile Technology
5. Supercomputers 12. Net Neutrality
6. Quantum Computing
7. Cloud Computing

1. Network :
»» A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or other
devices connected to allow data sharing. An example of a network is the Internet, which connects
millions of people all over the world.
»» Web refers to the World Wide Web (WWW), the internet’s core information retrieval system.
»» Web 2.0 is the current version of the web with which we are all familiar, while Web 3.0 represents its
next phase that will be decentralized, open, and of greater utility.
»» Web 3.0 is built upon the core concepts of decentralization, openness, and greater user utility.
2. Dark Web And Deep Net :
»» Darknet is a network of computers on the internet that are:
• Not accessible through the normal search engines o Provide anonymity to the source of web-content.
• To access content of the darknet, we need special software to get into this network of computers.
• In simple words, web content on darknet is intentionally hidden to provide anonymity to service
provider.
UNDERSTANDING INTERNET :

»» The total web content on the internet is broadly

classified into three broad categories:
1. Surface Web
2. Deep Web
3. Dark Web

1. SURFACE WEB :

»» Usual search engines such as Google, Yahoo &

Bing etc. can ‘look for’ and extract content and
present it in the form of a website/webpage.
»» For this, webpages are ‘indexed’ by search
engine.
»» Only about 10-15% of web content is present

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on surface web accessible by common searches.

DEEP WEB :

»» It is a term used for all those content or webpages that are there on the internet but are not indexed by
search engines and therefore not discernible by conventional search engines.
»» Thus, webpages on deep web do not show up in conventional search engines like Google, Yahoo, and
Bing etc.
»» About 75-80% of the web content/webpages are on the deep web.
»» Common examples of web content on deep web include financial data, back account details, emails,
personal data etc. that are password protected and only way to access these webpages is through login.
DARK NET / DARK WEB :

»» It is a part of the deep web that is intentionally hidden to provide anonymity.

Key features :

• No webpage indexing by surface web search engines.

• Virtual traffic tunnels via randomized network infrastructure.
• Inaccessible by traditional browsers due to its unique registry operator.
• Further hidden by various network security measures like firewalls and encryption.
»» To do this, Dark Net uses a specialized network of computers called relays through which the
information passes. Commonly, information on Dark Net passes through at least 3 relay computers
between the source and destination.
»» In addition, dark net uses network technology that hides the locations of these relay computers (IP
address) to ensure anonymity of the users.
»» Dark net can be accessed through TOR Browser (Anonymity Network).

FEATURES OF DARK NET :

»» While webpages on Darknet are hidden from a search engine, they can be accessed and downloaded by
anyone who has the exact IP address of the webpage.
»» Dark net does not provide any protection against malware, virus attack etc.
»» Since data is routed through many relay computers between source and destination, communication and

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downloading of webpages on the dark net is slow.

»» Used for both legitimate and illegitimate activities.
3. Metaverse :

Augmented reality (AR):

»» “The real-time usage of information in the form of text, visuals, audio, or other virtual upgrades merged
with real-world objects” is how augmented reality (AR) is described.
Virtual reality (VR) :

»» is a computer-generated simulation in which a person may interact with an artificial three- dimensional
world with the use of electronic equipment such as special eyewear with a screen or sensors-equipped
gloves.The user can enjoy a realistic-feeling experience in this simulated artificial world.
Metaverse :

»» It is a network of always-on virtual environments in which numerous individuals may interact with one
another and digital things through virtual representations of themselves.
»» A metaverse is a mixed reality environment that combines augmented and virtual reality.
4. Basics Of Computers :
»» Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information.
»» The term hardware refers to the physical components of your computer such as the system unit, mouse
etc.
»» The software is the instructions that make the computer work. Software is held either on your computer’s
hard disk or in DVD ROM.
i. Types of Memory :

»» Computer memory is of two basic types – Primary memory (RAM and ROM) and Secondary memory

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(hard drive, CD, etc). Random Access Memory (RAM) is primary-volatile memory and Read-Only
Memory (ROM) is primarynon- volatile memory.
ii. How Computer Memory Is Measured?

»» Bit: All computers work on a binary numbering system, i.e. they process data in one’s or zero’s. This 1
or 0 level of storage is called a bit.
»» Byte: A byte consists of eight bits.
»» Kilobyte: A kilobyte (KB) consists of 1024 bytes.
»» Megabyte: A megabyte (MB) consists of 1024 kilobytes. Gigabyte: A gigabyte (GB) consists of 1024
megabytes.
iii. Types of Computers:

»» Mini and Mainframe Computers Very powerful, used by large organizations such as banks to control
the entire business operation.
»» Personal Computers Cheap and easy to use. Often used as stand-alone computers or in a network.
5. Supercomputers :
»» These are large systems that are specifically
designed to solve complex scientific &
industrial challenges.
»» The performance of a supercomputer is
measured in Floating-Point Operations per
Second (FLOPS).
»» The top Five Supercomputers in the world:
»» India has 4 supercomputers in the list of
world’s top 500 supercomputers with Pratyush & Mihir being the fastest supercomputers in India.
»» The first indigenous supercomputer was developed indigenously in 1991 by Centre for Development of
Advanced Computing which was called as PARAM 8000.
»» Application areas: Climate Modeling, Computational Biology, Atomic Energy Simulations, National
Defence, Disaster management etc.
National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) :

»» It was Launched in 2015

»» NSM is jointly steered by the MeitY and Department of S&T (DST).
»» Implemented by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune & the IISc,
Bengaluru.
»» Objective : to connect national academic and R&D institutions with a grid of over 70 high-performance
computing facilities.
»» These will be networked on the ‘National Supercomputing Grid’ over the National Knowledge Network
(NKN).
6. Quantum Computing :
»» Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum physics to store data and perform
computations.
»» A classical computer performs operations using classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1.

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• Quantum computer uses quantum bits or Qubits, which can be both 0 and 1 at the same time.
• ‘Qubits’ are the units of computation in quantum computers (or quantum bits).
»» They take advantage of quantum mechanics’ characteristics, which regulate how matter behaves at the
atomic level.
»» The laws of quantum physics are used to achieve functioning of quantum computing.
1. Superimposition : Each quantum bit (basic unit of information in a quantum computer) can
represent both 1 and 0 at the same time, which is known as superposition.
2. Quantum entanglement : Subatomic particles become “entangled” (connected) in quantum
entanglement, which means that any change in one upsets the other, even though they are at
opposite ends of the universe. Major advantages: Faster, Accurate, & Energy efficient.
»» SYCAMORE : it is Google’s Quantum Computer, which recently claimed Quantum Supremacy.
»» Quantum Supremacy : refers to quantum computers being able to solve a problem that a classical
computer cannot.

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7. Cloud Computing :
»» Cloud computing is the delivery of computing services such as servers, storage, databases, networking,
software, analytics, and intelligence via the Internet (“the cloud”) in order to provide faster innovation,
more flexible resources, and economies of scale. In this article, we will discuss regarding Cloud
Computing which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.It is the delivery of various services via
the Internet. Data storage, servers, databases, networking, and software are examples of these resources.
»» Instead of storing files on a proprietary hard drive or local storage device, cloud-based storage allows
them to be saved to a remote database.
»» Cloud storage has grown in popularity among individuals who require more storage space and businesses
looking for an efficient off-site data backup solution.
»» Cloud storage allows you to save files to a remote database and retrieve them whenever you want.

8. Edge Computing.
»» Edge Computing enables data to be analysed, processed, and transferred at the edge of a network.
»» The data will be analysed locally, closer to where it is stored, in real-time without latency, rather than
send it far away to a centralised data centre.
»» So whether you are streaming a video or accessing video games in the cloud, edge computing allows
for quicker data processing and content delivery.
»» The basic difference between edge computing and cloud computing lies in where the data processing
takes place.
»» At the moment, the existing Internet of Things (IoT) systems perform all of their computations in the
cloud using data centres.
»» On the other hand, Edge Computing manages the massive amounts of data generated by IoT devices by
storing and processing data locally.
»» That data doesn’t need to be sent over a network as soon as it processed; only important data is sent.
»» Therefore, an edge computing network reduces the amount of data that travels over the network.
9. Big Data & Data Mining
»» Big Data simply refers to a large amount of data which is of structured, semi-structured or unstructured
nature. The data pool is so voluminous that it becomes difficult for an organization to manage and
process it using traditional databases and software techniques.
»» Therefore, big data not only implies the enormous amount of available data but it also refers to the
entire process of gathering, storing, and analyzing that data.

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Big Data is characterized by 6Vs as described in the above figure:

Government Initiatives & Interventions :

»» NITI Aayog is currently working on a plan in collaboration with the private players to develop the
‘National Data & Analytics Platform’, which will act as a single source of sectoral data for citizens,
policymakers, and researchers.
»» ‘Big Data Management Policy’ drafted by CAG for auditing large chunks of data generated by the
public sector in the states and the union territories, is a great start.
»» Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation has proposed to establish a ‘National Data
Warehouse on Official Statistics’ which will leverage technology and use big data analytical tools to
improve the quality of macro-economic aggregates.
»» Use of Direct Benefit Transfer in MGNREGA & Aadhaar for authentication & availing welfare scheme
benefits helps in the filtering of ghost beneficiaries.
»» The Ministry of Agriculture has signed a deal with the ISRO to use satellites for mapping of agricultural
assets.
»» Smart City Mission, Digital India, digital economy proposals like BHIM app, inter alia are important
government initiatives that are using Big Data for achieving good governance in the country.
10. Computer Viruses
»» A computer virus is a type of malicious code or program written to alter the way a computer operates
and is designed to spread from one computer to another.
»» In the process, a virus has the potential to cause unexpected or damaging effects, such as harming the
system software by corrupting or destroying data.
What are the different types of computer viruses?

Boot sector virus: This type of virus can take control when you start — or boot — your computer.
One way it can spread is by plugging an infected USB drive into your computer.
• Web scripting virus : This type of virus exploits the code of web browsers and web pages. If you
access such a web page, the virus can infect your computer.
• Browser hijacker: This type of virus “hijacks” certain web browser functions, and you may be
automatically directed to an unintended website.
• Resident virus: This is a general term for any virus that inserts itself in a computer system’s
memory. A resident virus can execute anytime when an operating system loads.
• Direct action virus: This type of virus comes into action when you execute a file containing a

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virus. Otherwise, it remains dormant.

• Polymorphic virus: A polymorphic virus changes its code each time an infected file is executed.
It does this to evade antivirus programs.
• File infector virus: This common virus inserts malicious code into executable files — files used to
perform certain functions or operations on a system.
• Multipartite virus: This kind of virus infects and spreads in multiple ways. It can infect both
program files and system sectors.
• Macro virus: Macro viruses are written in the same macro language used for software applications.
• Such viruses spread when you open an infected document, often through email attachments. A
computer worm is malware, just like a virus, but a worm takes a copy of itself and propagates it to
other users.
11. Mobile Technology :
Evolution of mobile networks over the various generations :

1G: Voice calls :

»» 1G refers to the first generation of wireless cellular technology and they enabled communication
between two supported devices using a wireless network.
»» Based on the analog system, 1G supported only voice calls, and those too of poor quality because of
interference and it worked in a fixed area because of a lack of roaming support by the network.
»» The main difference between these two mobile cellular generations is that the audio transmissions of
1G networks were analog, while 2G networks were entirely digital.
2G: Telephony services :

»» The analog system was now replaced by a much more advanced digital technology for wireless
transmission called the Global System for Mobile communication (GSM).
»» With digital underpinning, the 2G supported better quality voice calls and data services such as short
message service (SMS) and multimedia messaging service (MMS).
»» Besides, this mobile network enabled roaming facility, allowing users to attend calls, and send and
receive texts and multimedia content on the go.
»» It later received internet support by way of GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and EDGE (Enhanced
Data GSM Evolution), but that alone wasn’t enough for a generational shift.
3G: Age of applications :

»» The third generation mobile network introduced high speed internet services, which set the stage for
smartphones and application ecosystems.
»» While 3G enabled the concept of mobile television, online radio services, and emails on phones, it is
video calling and mobile phone apps that really define the 3G era.
4G: Internet calling :

»» 3G set the base for 4G, which is the current generation of the mobile network.
»» The concepts introduced by 3G such as high definition voice calls, video calls, and other internet
services become a reality in 4G.on account of a higher data rate and advanced multimedia services that
the mobile network supports.
»» It perfected the LTE (Long Term Evolution) system, which significantly improves data rate and allows

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simultaneous transmission of voice and data.

»» Internet calling, or VoLTE (Voice over LTE), is one of the many advantages of the 4G mobile network.
»» It also enables voice over WiFi (VoWiFi) that allows voice calls in areas with low or no network
reception.
VoLTE vs VoWiFi vs VoNR
VoLTE or Voice over LTE :

»» VoLTE or Voice over LTE (Long Term Evolution) is the voice calling capability in fourth-generation
(4G) LTE networks.
»» VoLTE requires the 4G LTE mobile core network (Evolved Packet Core – EPC) to work with another
network entity IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS).
»» It is a packet-switched IP technology that requires the mobile phone to be connected to a 4G radio base
station – eNodeB.
»» LTE networks, however, have a 2G/3G circuit-switched backup option called the circuit-switched
fallback (CSFB).
»» CSFB allows a mobile phone to switch to the 2G or 3G circuit-switched connection for voice calls and
SMS if VoLTE capability is not available.
»» In VoLTE, the end-to-end quality of service (QoS) can be ensured for the voice call.
WiFi calling or Voice over WiFi (VoWiFi) :

»» It is an IP technology that requires the mobile phone to connect to a local WiFi network to establish a
connection with a mobile network entity ePDG (Evolved Packet Data Gateway).
»» ePDG works with the mobile core network and IMS to ensure secure communication.
»» VoWiFi allows any cellular device to connect to the 4G LTE network as long as it is connected to the
internet.
»» Mobile networks require a new network entity called Evolved Packet Data Gateway (ePDG) as an
“adapter” to connect any online cellular device to the 4G LTE network ecosystem.
»» The role of ePDG is to make sure that the cellular devices are connected to the mobile network in a
highly secure way.
»» Both VoLTE and VoWiFi require IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) that works with the 4G LTE mobile
core network to establish the necessary connections for enabling voice/text services.
VoNR stands or Voice over New Radio (NR) :

»» VoNR is the capability in the fifth generation (5G) of mobile networks that requires a 5G mobile core
network that can work with another network entity IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS).
»» It is a packet-switched IP technology that requires the mobile phone to be connected to a 5G radio base
station – gNodeB.
»» Conceptually, both VoNR and VoLTE work similarly as they are both IP-based and use the packet-
switching technique.
»» 5G NR networks can co-exist with 4G LTE, but they can also work as stand-alone 5G mobile networks.
5G : IoT and enterprises :

»» From 1G to 4G, each successive generation of communication technology has brought significant
changes in the network.

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»» 5G, however, is expected to be a little different, in the sense that it will not just be another network
geared toward smartphone users but also enterprises.
»» This is because the next generation of networks would not just bring improvement in data speeds but
also latency and throughput.
»» The low latency and high throughput make the network ideal for enterprise use, especially with regard
to automation and connected ecosystem.
»» The 5G network will operate in the millimeter-wave spectrum (30-300 GHz) which can send large
amounts of data at very high speeds as the frequency is very high, and it experiences little interference
from surrounding signals.
»» For consumers, the network would deliver high internet speeds and would likely play a crucial role in
enabling technologies such as the metaverse.
»» It used OFDM (orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing) and millimeter wireless that enables a
data rate of 20Mbps and a frequency band of 2-8 GHz.
»» It can be used for streaming high-quality videos, more accurate location tracking, low-latency
communication, and better ability for real-time analytics.
6G : Connected ecosystem :

»» 6G is touted to drive the adoption of 5G use cases at scale through optimisations and cost reduction,
especially at the enterprise level.
»» For example, the metaverse is one of the 5G use cases, which promises to disrupt both traditional and
digital spaces.
»» With 6G, the metaverse would not just evolve into a final model but is also likely to unify with the
physical world with the help of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
»» India is looking at 2023end or early 2024 to launch 6G services using indigenous developed
infrastructure.

Jitin Yadhav cleared CSE

Prelims 2023 Megha cleared CSE
Prelims 2023
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10. Emerging Technologies

Topics Covered

1. Blockchain Technology 8. Deepfakes

2. Wearable Technology 9. Li-Fi
3. Near-Field Communication (Nfc) 10. Biometrics
4. Radio Frequency Identification (Rfid) 11. 3d Printing
5. Fastag 12. Drone
6. Internet Of Things (Iot)
7. Artificial Intelligence

1. Blockchain Technology :
»» Blockchain technology is a distributed ledger technology suitable for decentralized and transactional
data shared across a large network of untrusted entities.
»» Blockchain technology does not operate through any central authority and is managed by a cluster
of computers not owned by any single entity. Since the data is shared, it is open and transparent for
everyone to see.
»» Blockchain ledgers have traditionally been used as supporting structures for cryptocurrencies, such as
Bitcoin and Ethereum and even digital currency LIBRA of Facebook.
»» However, use of blockchain technologies in noncryptocurrencies applications too has seen a steady
rise, with some solutions allowing individuals and companies to draft legally-binding “smart contracts,”
enabling detailed monitoring of supply chain networks including projects focused on enabling remote
voting and elections.

POTENTIAL BLOCKCHAIN APPLICATIONS :

1. Transfer of land records (Property record 4. e-Notary service (Blockchain enabled e-Sign
management). solution)
2. Digital certificates management (Education, 5. Farm insurance
Death, Birth, Agreements, Sale Deeds)
6. Identity management
3. Pharmaceutical supply chain

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7. Power distribution 12. Digital Evidence Management System
8. Duty payments 13. Public Service Delivery
9. Agriculture and other supply chains 14. IoT Device Management and Security
10. eVoting 15. Vehicle lifecycle administration
11. Electronic Health Record Management 16. Microfinance for Self-Help Groups

2. Wearable Technology :
»» These are smart electronic devices designed to be worn on the
user’s body. Ex: Smart jewellery, Wristbands, watches etc.
»» These devices detect, analyze, and transmit information.
»» Wearable technology is evolving into an important category
of the Internet of things, with life-changing applications in
medicine and other fields.
3. Near-Field Communication (Nfc) :
»» NFC is a short-range contactless communication technology
based on a Radio Frequency (RF) field using a base frequency
of 13.56 MHz.
»» NFC-enabled devices must be either physically touching or
within a few centimeters of each other for data transfer to occur.
4. Radio Frequency Identification (Rfid) :
»» RFID technology uses radio waves to passively identify a tagged object.
»» An RFID tag consists of a tiny radio transponder; a radio receiver and transmitter.
»» Unlike a barcode, the tag doesn’t need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded
in the tracked object.
5. Fastag
»» The FASTag is a reloadable tag that allows tolls to be deducted
automatically without the need to stop for a cash transaction.
»» Once activated, the tag employs Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) technology and is attached to the vehicle’s windscreen.
»» It was first used in April 2016, and on December 1, 2017, the
government made it mandatory for all new automobiles and
trucks to be fitted with a FASTag before being sold.
»» The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) returns 5% of total monthly transactions to encourage
the usage of FASTags.
6. Internet Of Things (Iot)
»» IoT is a seamless connected network
system of embedded objects/ devices, with
identifiers, in which communication without
any human intervention is possible using
standard and interoperable communication
protocols.

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»» Internet of things (IoT) is extension of Internet connectivity into physical devices & everyday objects.
»» Embedded with electronics, Internet connectivity, and other hardware like sensors, these devices
can communicate and interact with others over the Internet, and they can be remotely monitored and
controlled by computers and smart phone.
APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET OF THINGS :

»» Smart cities: Cellular communication enabled Smart municipal bins will send alerts to municipal
services when a bin needs to be emptied.
»» Agriculture: Sensing for soil moisture & nutrients, controlling water usage for plant growth &
determining custom fertilizer are uses of IoT.
»» Energy utilization: Smart Grids will be able to detect sources of power outages, can automatically take
inputs of solar panel, making possible distributed energy system.
»» Healthcare: Personalized analysis of an individual’s health and tailor-made strategies to combat illness
will be possible. Enhanced patient monitoring and better health outcomes.
»» Manufacturing: The IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing of new products, dynamic
response to product demands, and real-time optimization of manufacturing production and supply
chain networks, by networking machinery, sensors, and control systems together.
»» Environmental monitoring: to assist in environmental protection by monitoring air or water quality,
atmospheric or soil conditions. It can even include areas like monitoring the movements of wildlife and
their habitats.
»» Supply chain: By placing RFID tags on individual products, the exact location of single items in
a large warehouse can be shared, thus saving search time, streamlining infrastructure, and lowering
labour costs.
»» Elderly, sick and disabled population can be particularly assisted using IoT technology with greater
care.
»» Overall boosting of efficiency which will result in economic growth and employment creation.
7. Artificial Intelligence :
»» AI or Artificial Intelligence is the science of making machines perform tasks that require human
intelligence.
»» AI includes activities such as learning, reasoning, and self-correction.
»» It allows machines to learn from experience, adjust to new inputs, and perform human-like tasks.
AI Vs COMPUTERS :

»» While computers rely on Instruct-Fetch-Execute cycles, AI enables machines to sense, comprehend

and act.
»» It is based on symbolic non-algorithmic processing and relies on heuristics to identify patterns and
relationships.
»» AI is used for speech recognition, text analysis, and vision.
»» It includes technologies like machine learning, pattern recognition, big data, neural networks, self-
algorithms etc.

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8. Deepfakes :
»» Deepfakes leverage machine learning and artificial
intelligence to manipulate or generate visual and
audio content with a high potential to deceive.”
»» These are fake videos or audio recordings that look
and sound just like the real.
»» The main machine learning methods used to create
deepfakes are based on deep learning and involve
training generative neural network architectures,
such as auto-encoders or generative adversarial
networks (GANs).
»» Deepfakes are a new tool to spread computational propaganda & disinformation at scale and with
speed.
9. Li-Fi :
»» It is a bidirectional, fully networked wireless communication technology that transmits data using
visible light rather than radio frequencies.
»» A router is made out of an adapted LED bulb.
»» It can provide more resilient and reliable wireless networks that complement and enhance existing
cellular and Wi-Fi networks by providing greater security, data rates, and density.
»» It delivers ultra-fast data connections, which are particularly beneficial in metropolitan regions where
radio spectrum is congested, as well as in rural locations where Fiber Optic Cables or networks are
unavailable.
»» A standard LED bulb is linked to a gadget, which is linked to the Internet.
»» The Internet data enters the bulb via the gadget and is transported by light waves.
»» Light waves delivering Internet data fall on a receiver or a dongle attached to the computer on the other
end.
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10. Biometrics
»» Biometrics are biological measurements — or
physical characteristics — that can be used to
identify individuals. For example, fingerprint
mapping, facial recognition, and retina scans are
all forms of biometric technology, but these are
just the most recognized options.
Digital Signature Certificates (DSC) :

»» DSC are the digital equivalent (that is electronic

format) of physical or paper certificates.
»» Certificates serve as a proof of identity of an
individual.
»» DSCs can be presented electronically to prove
identity, to access information or services on the
Internet or to sign certain documents digitally.
11. 3d Printing
»» 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a method of creating prototypes or functional
models of products by layering materials such as plastic, resin, thermoplastic, metal, fiber, or ceramic.
»» With a market share of more than 35%, the United States is the global leader in 3D printing.China
controls almost half of the Asian market, followed by Japan (30%) and South Korea (10%).
Process of 3D Printing :

»» The process of 3D printing begins with the creation of a virtual model of the thing to be manufactured.
»» A 3D modelling application, such as CAD (Computer Aided Design), or 3D scanners can be used to
create virtual designs.
»» After that, the 3D digital copy is loaded into a 3D modelling application. In order to print the model, it
is next cut into hundreds or thousands of horizontal layers.
»» This prepared file is then sent to the 3D printer, which reads each slice in 2D format and then builds the
item layer by layer, with no apparent layering and a 3 dimensional structure as a result

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12. Drone :
»» A drone refers to an unpiloted aircraft or spacecraft. Another term for it is an “unmanned aerial vehicle,”
or UAV.

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