11th Biology | Chapter 1: Cell Structure and Functions| Federal Board Page 1

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1ST YEAR BIOLOGY NOTES

FEDERAL BOARD

CHAPTER 1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

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Cell Fractionation

Introduction: Cell fractionation is the combination of various methods used to separate a cell
organelle and components bases upon size and density.

Significance: It is very useful for electron microscopy of cell components.

Principle/ Mechanism/ Method:

 The principle of cell fractionation is based on size, density, charge, mass etc. of cell
components
 It consists of two steps i.e. homogenization and centrifugation

a) Homogenization

Definition: It is the formation of homogenous mass of cells called cell homogenate or cell
suspension.

Process: It involves the grinding of cells in a suitable medium.

Conditions:

 Correct
 pH
 Ionic composition
 Temperature
 Presence of certain enzymes that can break the cementing substance of celled. For
example pectinase which digest middle lamella among plant cells.

Method: This can be done in a cell homogenizer e.g. food mixer/ blender

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Result: This procedure gives rise a uniform mixture of cells called cell homogenate.

b) Centrifugation

Definition: Centrifugation is the process to separate substances on the basis of their size and
densities under the influence of centrifugal force by a machine called centrifuge.

Principle of Centrifuge

 Centrifuge spins the tubes.

 Contents are kept in tubes that are much like the
test tubes.
 Spinning the tubes exerts a centrifugal (spinning)
force on the contents.
 Contents are separated based on size and
density under the influence of centrifugal force.

Method: There are two major ways of centrifugations i.e. density

gradient centrifugation and differential centrifugation

a) Density Gradient Centrifugation

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Principle: It is based on different densities of cell components

 Cell components of different densities are separated in different layers (sediments) in

the tube containing ionic medium according to their size and densities.
 Upper sediments have smaller and less dense components than lower sediments.

b) Differential Centrifugation

Principle: It is based on different sizes and shapes of cell components

 Sedimentation rate for a particle of given size and shape measure how fast the particle
“settles” or sediments.
 The faster the rotation of centrifuge, the smaller the particles will sediment.
 A series of increasing speeds can be used.
 At each step, the content which settles at the bottom of the tube is called pellet.
 At, each step, the content which remains suspended above the sediment in the form of
liquid is called supernatant.
 After each speed, the supernatant can be drawn off and centrifuge again at higher
speed.
 A series of pellets containing cell organelles of smaller and smaller size can be obtained.

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Differential Staining

Introduction: Most biological structures are transparent. In order to differentiate between

these structures various colour dyes are applied. Such techniques are called staining
techniques.

Q. What is/ Define Staining techniques.

Q. Why there is need for staining techniques?

Q. Use/ Application/ Importance/Role/ Significance of staining techniques?

Q. Since most of the cell organelles are transparent how can you differentiate them?

Stain: Colour dyes used to differentiate or locate cell components are called stains.

Types of Staining: Two main types:

a) Single Staining

Definition: When only one stain is used it is called single staining.

Example: Use of only borax carmine to stain nucleus.

b) Differential Staining / Double Staining

Definition: When two stains are used to stain different parts of cell it is called differential
staining or double staining

Example: e.g. use of haematoxylin to stain nucleus and eosin to stain cytoplasm

Microdissections

Definition: Microdissection refers to the variety of techniques where a microscope is used to

assist in dissection.

Applications: It is done to remove tumour or granules from delicate tissue or cells like, brain,
heart, and nerve cells. It is widely used in biological research.

Procedure: In this technique, the image is seen on large TV screen or monitor while dissecting.

Types: Based on technique and object, following are the types;

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a) Chromosomal Microdissection: It involves the use of fine glass needle under a microscope
to remove a portion from a complete chromosome.
Concept: Cells are taken at metaphase stage for chromosomal microdissection
because a t this stage they are most coiled, compact and visible

b) Laser Microdissection: It involves the use of a laser through a microscope to dissect

selected cells.

Tissue Culture

Definition

Growth of a cell or a tissue on chemically defined nutrient medium under sterile conditions is
called tissue culture.

Application

This technique can be employed for both plants and animals.

a) Plant Tissue Culturing

Plant tissue culturing is mainly used for plant cloning i.e., production of genetically identical
plants (clones).

b) Animal Tissue Culturing

Animal tissue culture is usually set up by growing individual cells to form a single layer of cells
over the surface of a glass container. Animal tissue cultures are used to see any abnormality in
the cell, e.g., cancer, chromosomal disorder etc

Chromatography

Introduction: Chromatography is a technique which is used to separate different chemical

compounds from a mixture using an apparatus called chromatography chamber.

Applications: It is generally used for the separation of mixtures of proteins, amino acids or
photosynthetic compounds.

[ Chrome = color, graphy = to write, originally used for separation of colored compounds ]

Types: There are different types e.g.

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 Paper Chromatography
 Column Chromatography
 Gas Liquid Chromatography

Paper Chromatography

 It is the most simple

 Most widely used
 It uses a filter paper (that is why it is called paper chromatography)
 It involves two phases i.e. Mobile phase and Stationary phase.

a) Mobile Phase

 It travels over stationary phase ( so called mobile phase)

 It consists of mixture dissolved in a solvent e.g. water.
Mobile phase = mixture + solvent

b) Stationary Phase

 It is a filter paper
 It stays fixed ( so called stationary phase)

Working/ Procedure / Mechanism

 When mobile phase travels through stationary phase, components of mixture begin to
separate in the form of dots.
 Different components move with different speeds so get separated.
 It is a slow process.
 After due time, paper is let to dry.
 Colorless components are made visible by using dyes or stains.
 The paper showing results of chromatography is called chromatogram.

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Electrophoresis

Outline

1- Definition:

 Separation technique
 Used to separate fragments of charge bearing polymer molecules
 e.g. separation of DNA, RNA, protein etc.

2- Basis

It is based on;
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 Charge i.e. +ve or -ve

 Shape
 Size
 Molecular weight

3- Applications

Electrophoresis technique is used for;

 Separation of DNA, RNA, proteins from mixtures

 Visualizing DNA molecules and determining their approximate sizes
 Identifying specific DNA fragments/ molecules

4- Principle

a) Electrophoresis technique uses principle of electric field on charge particles i.e.

 +ve molecules move towards –ve charge

 -ve molecules move towards +ve charge

b) It utilizes gel medium for holding and separation of molecules, that’s why also called gel
electrophoresis.

5- Mechanism/ Working/ Procedure

a) Gel ( agarose or polyacrylamide) is sandwiched between glass or plastic plates to form a

viscous slab

b) Samples are placed on gel in special depressions called wells

c) Two ends of the slab are suspended in two salt containing buffer solutions.

d) Buffer solutions are connected by electrodes to a power source.

e) Voltage is applied that moves molecules according to their charge;

 -ve molecules move to positive pole (electrode)

 +ve molecules move to negative pole (electrode)
 Speed of molecules is inversely proportional to their size(mass)
 Smaller and lighter molecules move faster than larger and heavier molecules
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f) After the process, molecules are visualized or pin pointed using stains.

Advanced Concepts
 Role of Gel
 Gel is porous_so it allows molecules of to pass through
 Different types of gels have different pore sizes
 Pore size of a gel is also affected by its concentration i.e. at higher
concentration (denser) gel forms small pores used for separation of
small molecules
 Role of buffer solution
 It acts as electrolyte i.e. allows to pass current
 Types of electrophoresis based on gel
 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
 Polyacryl-Amide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)
 Types of electrophoresis based on nature of molecule
 Native Electrophoresis (molecules are not change)
 Denaturing Electrophoresis (molecules are denatured before
electrophoresis)

Spectrophotometry
1) Definition
• Quantitative technique
• Measures absorption of different wavelengths of light
• By a compound (mostly colored, but can also be used for colorless compounds
2) Instrument
Spectrophotometer:
• Measures the amount of light passing from sample
• Calculates how much light is absorbed by sample
• Can also find how much light is transmitted
3) Principle
Every compound (based on structure and bonding) absorbs light of specific wavelengths
4) Result
Absorption spectrum:
• It is a graph plotted by spectrophotometer
• Shows absorption of different light wavelengths by a compound
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5) Structure and Working

a) Structure :
• Light source _ a bulb
• Lens called collimator _focuses light
• Monochromator _ a prism that transmits narrow
range of light wavelengths from a wide variety.
• Wavelength selector _ a slit that selects a specific length
• Cuvette_ a small tube for sample solution
• Light detector _ detects transmitted light
• Digital Display_ a metre that shows data
b) Working: bulb emits light which is focused by lens on monochromator. Specific wavelength
is selected by wavelength selector and is passed from a sample solution in cuvette. Some part
of light is absorbed by sample and remaining is transmitted. Transmitted light is detected by
light detector and data is shown by a digital metre.

6) Types:
Two main types;
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a) UV-Visible Spectrophotometry
• Uses ultraviolet and visible ranges of light
• By uv-visible spectrophotometer
b) IR-Spectrophotometry
• Uses infra-red ranges of light
• By IR-spectrophotometer
7) Applications
• Widely used in biology, chemistry, biochemistry, physics, chemical
engineering, chemical industries
• Is used in diagnosis of diseases
• Can be used to find amount of a substance in samples.

Magnification and Resolution

Outline

Magnification

Definition:

 Ability of microscope to make enlarged image of an object.

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 It is increase apparent size of object.

 It means how many times image of an object has been enlarged as compared to the
actual size of the object.

Units:

 Magnification of microscope has no units.

 It is represented by capital letter ‘X’
 e.g. 150X resolution means that image of object has been enlarged 150 times as
compared to the original size of the object.

Factors:

 It depends on magnification of lenses used in microscope.

 Mm = Mobj ×Mep
Where
 Mm = magnification of microscope
 Mobj = magnification of objective lens
 Mep = magnification of eyepiece (ocular lens)
 e.g. if Mobj is 5X and Mep is then Mm will be 50X

Limitations:

 Theoretically you can achieve desired magnification using proper lenses

 Beyond a certain point magnification is of no use because image reveals no more
details.
 It is limited by the size of the lens.

Variations: Magnification is a variable factor for a microscope. It means that you can change
magnification of a microscope by changing any of or both objective and ocular lenses.

Resolution or Resolving Power

Definition:

 It is the minimum distance at which two points can be seen separated.

 It is the measure of clarity of an image

Units:

 Resolution is measured in mm, um or nm

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Factors:

 Resolution depends on many factors such as;

 Wavelength of rays being used
 Aperture of lens
 Refractive index of medium
 Arrangement of entire components of microscope

Limitations

 It is limited by its factors mainly the wavelength of rays being used e.g. ordinary light or
beam of electrons

Variations:

It is constant factor for a microscope.

Differentiate between magnification and resolution

Factors Magnification Resolution

Definition Increase in apparent size of object Measure of clarity of an image
Unit No unit mm, um, or nm
Dependence On lens On wavelength
Variation Variable for a microscope Constant for a microscope
Micrometry  4000X of L.M.S  25Ao of L.M.S
Definition:
Example  300,000X of E.M.S  0.5-5Ao
It is the measurement of size of microscopic objects using microscope
Principle:
Calibration of ocular micrometer using stage micrometer.
Requirements:
a) Slide of object
b) Ocular micrometer / graticule
c) Stage micrometer / graticule
Steps:
a) Place slide of the object on stage of microscope
b) Place ocular micrometer in eyepiece /ocular lens
c) Note down divisions of ocular micrometer equal to length of the object
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d) Calibrate ocular micrometer with stage micrometer
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Cell Wall

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11th Biology | Chapter 1: Cell Structure and Functions| Federal Board Page 17
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Definition Non-living, rigid, semi-transparent, protective , outermost layer of cells

except animal and animal-like protists is known as cell wall

Occurrence • Plants
• Fungi
• Prokaryotes (bacteria)
• Many protists

Composition • Plant cell : cellulose

• Fungal cell : Chitin
• Bacterial cell : Peptidoglycan (murein)

General Functions Cell wall provides;

• Shape to the cell
• Mechanical support
• Strength against osmotic pressure (turgor pressure)
• Physical barrier against pathogens
• Cell to cell interaction (palsmodesmata)
• Passage of molecules (porous , pores called pits)

Formation Cell wall is made by protoplasm of the cell.

Material of synthesis of new wall is derived from golgi bodies as golgi vesicles

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Plant Cell Wall

• First discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665
• Present in all plant cells
• Divided into three types
a) Middle lamella
b) Primary cell wall
c) Secondary cell wall

Middle Lamella
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a) Location
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Primary Cell Wall

a) Location
• Present inner to middle lamella
• It is true wall
• Found in all plant cells
• Develops in newly growing cell
• Each cell produces a primary cell wall
b) Composition
• Consists of cellulose microfibrils (bundles of cellulose chains)
• A matrix made of hemicellulose and pectin
• Microfibrils run through matrix in crisscross arrangement
c) Significance
• Primary cell wall is thin and slightly flexible
• Due to flexibility, it is adapted to growth
• The cell wall stretches plastically i.e. irreversibly
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• Due to crisscross arrangement of the fibres, it adds great strength to the

cell

Secondary Cell Wall

a) Location
• Present inner to primary cell wall (b/w plasma membrane and primary
cell wall)
• Found in few cells (Sclerenchyma cells and xylem cells)
• Develops only when cell has reached maximum size.
b) Composition
Consists of
• Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, inorganic salts, and waxes
• Lignin cements cellulose microfibrils in crisscross arrangement
a) Significance
• Secondary cell wall is thick and rigid
• Due to rigidness, it does not allow growth
• Less permeable to the substances
• Cells usually become dead
• Due to lignin secondary cell wall provides definite shape and
mechanical support to the cell.

Difference between primary and secondary cell

wall

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Outline

Plasma Membrane

1) Definition

 A membrane that covers cytoplasm (protoplasm) is known as plasma membrane

 Boundary of protoplasm

2) Occurrence

 Found in all living prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

 Outermost structure of animal cell but is second layer in plant, fungal and bacterial cells
 Is about 7nm thick
 Absent in acellular structures e.g. viruses

3) Other Names

Also known as

 Cell membrane
 Plasmalemma
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11th Biology | Chapter 1: Cell Structure and Functions| Federal Board Page 22
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 Cell surface membrane

4) Composition

It is composed of

a) Proteins
 60% to 80%
 Include various structural and functional proteins
b) Lipid
 20 % to 40%
 Include phospholipids and cholesterol
 Cholesterol is absent in the membranes of prokaryotes
c) Carbohydrates
 In small quantity
 Conjugated with proteins = glycoproteins
 Conjugated with lipids = glycolipids

5) Structure: Fluid Mosaic Model

a) Introduction:

 Was introduced by S.J Singer and L.Nicolson

 In 1972
 Explains the structure of cell membrane
 Most accepted model at present
 Membrane is a phospholipid bilayer in which proteins are partially or wholly embedded

b) Lipid bilayer

 Made of phospholipids
 Bilayer means two layers ( bi = two)
 Phospholipid molecules have two end
 Phosphate containing part
 Is polar, so attracts water, therefore called hydrophilic end.
 It makes head of phospholipid molecule
 Represented by a circle
 Lipid part
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 contains two long chains of hydrocarbons

 chains are non-polar, so move away from water, therefore called
hydrophobic end
 chains may be saturated (all C to C single bonds) or unsaturated ( contain
one or more double bonds)
 Make tails of phospholipid molecule
 Represented by two downward parallel lines
 Hydrophilic ends are arranged outward and appear on surface
 Hydrophobic ends are arranged inward and face each other

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 Other lipids e.g. steroids, cholesterol are wedged into the phospholipid bilayer at some
intervals.

c) Embedded Proteins

 Embedded in lipid bilayer partially or wholly

 Scattered throughout the membrane in irregular pattern
 Distribution of membrane may vary from membrane to membrane and also vary on
both surfaces
 Generally proteins drift sideways in lipid bilayer
 Have both structural and functional roles

Critical Thinking
Why the cell surface membrane is described as fluid mosaic?
Ans: Because cell surface membrane is made of many different
substances and it has fluid nature due to lipid molecules.
Fluid: because fluid nature of membrane
Mosaic: because different types of substances are present

d) Conjugated Carbohydrates

 Attached with proteins = glycoproteins

 Attached with lipids = glycolipids
 Include branched or unbranched oligosaccharides
 Generally on outer side of membrane

e) Symmetry

 Plasma membrane is asymmetric

 Means their inner and outer surfaces are not identical
 Molecules on inner and outer surfaces differ from each other

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 e.g. carbohydrates are generally present on outer surface and components of

cytoskeleton are attached on inner surface.

f) Fluidity

 Cell membrane has fluid nature

 Fluidity depends on lipid components.
 Higher ratio of saturated phospholipids decreases fluidity. It makes membrane
less flexible.
 Higher ratio of unsaturated lipids increases fluidity. It makes membrane more
flexible
 Cholesterol has double role;
 At lower temperatures it increases fluidity
 At higher temperatures it stabilizes membrane i.e. decrease fluidity

Outline

Functions of Plasma Membrane

1) Role of Plasma Membrane Lipids

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Plasma membrane lipids perform following functions;

a) Lipid Bilayer

 Lipid bilayer is formed by phospholipids

 Lipid bilayer makes basic structure of plasma membrane

b) Fluidity

 Lipid part controls the fluidity of the membrane.

 Unsaturated fatty acids increase fluidity and saturated fatty acids decrease fluidity
 Cholesterol has double role; it increases fluidity at low temperature but decreases it at
higher temperature.

c) Transport Control

 Interior of lipid bilayer (tails) is non-polar in nature.

 It favours the entry and exit of non-polar substances
 It restricts the entry and exit of polar substances

d) Surface markers

 Surface markers are molecules at the outer surface of plasma membrane

 They are unique for cell type, act as tags so give identity to the cell
 Glycolipids work as surface markers.

2) Functions of Plasma Membrane Proteins

a) Transport Proteins

 Many plasma proteins bring transport across the cell

 One transport protein brings transport of particular class of substances e.g. ions, sugars,
amino acids, etc.
 Two main classes of transport proteins;

i) Channel proteins

ii) Carrier proteins

Channel Proteins Carrier Proteins

Do not combine with substance being Combine with substance being transported

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transported
Shape (conformation) is fixed Shape changes during transport
Transport only water soluble substances Transport both water soluble and insoluble
substances
Substances simultaneously move in and out. Substances can move in or out at a time
Movement only by passive transport Movement by both passive and active
(diffusion) transport

b) Enzymes

 Some plasma membrane proteins have enzymatic functions

 They perform metabolic functions directly
 e.g. adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP) second messenger

c) Receptors

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 Some plasma membrane proteins act as receptors

 They receive signal molecules from other cells.
 Each receptor protein has specific shape so fits in a specific signal molecule to bind it.
 Binding of signal molecule to receptor protein brings a change in shape (conformation)
of receptor.
 Change shape of receptor intracellular response.
 e.g. glucagon and insulin hormones bind to their receptors present on liver cells.
 Viruses exploit these receptors to bind to the cells and then enter cells.
 e.g. CD 4 receptors on some immune(WBCs) cells.

d) Antigens

 Antigens are the proteins that trigger production of antibodies by white blood cells.
 Antigens are recognized by white blood cells.
 Foreign antigens (antigens of a germ) are attacked by white blood cells.
 Self-antigens also exist e.g. antigens A and B on red blood cells result in ABO blood
group system

3) Role of Plasma Membrane Carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates are present in conjugated (attached) form .

 Carbohydrates + proteins = glycoproteins
 Carbohydrates + lipids = glycolipids

a) Cell Surface Markers

 Glycolipids and glycoproteins act as cell surface markers.

 Surface markers act as tags and give identity and recognition to the cell
 Each type of cell has its own specific markers.

b) Role in Tissue Formation

 They are involved in sticking the correct cells together in tissues

4) Interaction of Cell with its Environment

 Regulated by plasma membrane by controlling transport of substances.

a) Transport

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Transport across the plasma membrane occurs;

 To obtain nutrients
 To remove waste substances
 To secrete useful substances
 To secrete ions for creating ionic difference (gradient) for nervous and muscular activity
 To maintain a suitable pH within cell for enzymes

b) Transport Mechanisms

There are 4 basic mechanisms for transport across plasma membrane;

 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport
 Bulk transport (endocytosis & exocytosis)

c) Selective Nature

 Plasma membrane is called semi-permeable membrane

 It allows few molecules to pass and stops others.
 Small and neutral molecules (H2O, CO2) easily pass
 Large and charged (ions) substances cannot cross easily
 In this way it controls composition of cytoplasm

Outline

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

1) Definition

It is network of interconnected elongated closed sacs called cisternae

2) Location

Extends from nuclear membrane to plasma membrane

3) Occurrence

 Present in eukaryotic cells

 But few eukaryotic cells do not have endoplasmic reticulum e.g. RBCs
 Absent in prokaryotic cells.

4) Types

Two types;

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

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 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

Most cells have both types but some cells have more SER e.g. skeletal muscle cells where SER
is called sarcoplasmic reticulum.

a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Definition:

 Type of ER that has attached ribosomes is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
 Appears rough under electron microscope.
Functions:
 Proteins synthesis (translation: reading of message on mRNA and joining of amino acids
to make protein)
 Provides mechanical support to cell
b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Definition

 Type of ER that does not have attached ribosomes is called smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).
 Appears smooth under electron microscope

Functions

i) Carbohydrate metabolism: formation of glucose from glycogen for cellular respiration

ii) Lipid metabolism: Formation of lipids e.g. oils, phospholipids and steroids

iii) Detoxification: removal of drugs and toxins (poisons) especially in liver cells.

iv) Storage: Stores calcium ions in muscles cells for the contraction of muscles

v) Transport: involved in intracellular (within cell) and extracellular (outside of cell) transport
of cellular substances

vi) Mechanical support: provides mechanical support to the cell.

5) Diagram

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Ribosmes

1) Definition

Non-membranous, roughly spherical granular bodies associated with protein synthesis are
called ribosomes.

2) Occurrence

Found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

3) Location

Freely dispersed in cytoplasm and also attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

4) Appearance

 Only visible under electron microscope

 Look as dense granules
 Roughly spherical

5) Structure

 Ribosome consists of two parts/ subunits;

a) Small subunit

b) Large submit
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 Two subunits join at the time of working, and separate after performing the function.

6) Size

a) Eukaryotic ribosome

 Larger (about 24 nm diameter) than prokaryotic

 It is 80 S ( S stands for Svedberg_ the unit of sedimentation rate)
 Small subunit: 40 S
 Large subunit: 60 S

b) Prokaryotic ribosome

 Smaller (about 20 nm diameter) than eukaryotic

 It is 70 S ribosome
 Small subunit : 30 S
 Large subunit : 50 S

7) Composition

 Made of almost equal amounts of RNA (called ribosomal RNA) and proteins
 RNA + Protein = Ribonucleoprotein

8) Synthesis

 Ribosomes of eukaryotic cell are formed in nucleolus and then transported to the
cytoplasm
 Ribosomes of prokaryotic cell are formed in nucleoid region ( region in cell where
chromosome is present)

9) Working / Function

 Ribosome is called protein factory

 Ribosome reads the message on messenger RNA (mRNA) and accordingly joins amino
acids to form protein_this process is called translation.
 Two subunits (40 S and 60 s) combine at the time of working and separate after the
function.
 Combination of two subunits
a) Is forced by higher magnesium ions concentration

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b) Is formed by salt bonds. Salt bonds are formed between phosphate group of RNA of
one subunit and amine group of amino acid of other subunit.

Salt bonds: bonds formed between positive and negative charged ends
of two molecules. Salt bonds are weaker and can easily be broken by
changing pH.
 When many ribosomes attached to a single mRNA they form a chain and it is called
polysome or polyribosome. This increases rate of protein production.

10) Ribosomes of organelles

 In eukaryotic cells; mitochondria and chloroplast have their own ribosomes.

 Their ribosomes are prokaryotic in nature (70 S).

11) Diagram

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Golgi Complex

1) Definition

 It is a stack of flattened membrane-enclosed sacs called cisternae and vesicles

 Golgi complex = cisternae + vesicles

2) Discovery

 Was discovered by Camillo Golgi

 In 1898
 He was awarded Nobel prize for this discovery

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3) Other names

Also known as

 Golgi bodies
 Golgi apparatus

4) Structure

Golgi complex consists of membrane-enclosed cisternae and golgi vesicles

a) Cisternae

 Cisternae are stacks of flattened sacs

 There is a central stack (central cisternae) around which other stacks are formed.
 There are two faces (sides) of cisternae

Cis Face Trans Face

Outer side Inner side
Convex shaped Concave shaped
Vesicles from SER fuse at this face Vesicles separate from this face
New cisternae are formed Cisternae break into vesicles
It is forming face It is mature face

b) Golgi Vesicles

 These small round sacs

 Formed at Trans end of cisternae
 They transport substances in them inside the cell or outside the cell
 Or they act as organelles e.g. if they contain digestive enzymes they are termed as
lysosomes.

c) Lumen: Space inside the tubular part of sac

5) Diagram

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6) Functions

a) Processing and Modification

 It processes of cell secretions mainly proteins

 Processing involves tagging and sorting of proteins
 Modification involves addition of sugar residues to proteins (glycoproteins)
 Golgi complexes are common in secretory cells (glandular cells)

b) Transport

 Golgi complex transports substances through golgi vesicles

 Transport may be intracellular (inside the cell) or extra cellular (outside the cell)

c) Formation of organelles

 Certain organelles originate from golgi complex as vesicles

 Lysosomes, peroxisomes, glyoxisomes

d) Formation of conjugated molecules

 Glycoproteins
 Glycolipids

e) Cell Wall Synthesizing

In plant cell during cytokinesis

 Vesicles containing material for cell wall synthesis originate from golgi complex
 Arrange at the equator of the cell
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 Fuse and form phragmoplast

 Phragmoplast gives rise to new cell wall

LYSOSOMES

1) Definition

 Single- membrane bounded round sacs that contain digestive enzymes (hydrolases) for
intracellular digestion are called lysosomes
 Lyso = splitting Some = body

2) Occurrence

 Found in animal and animal-like eukaryotic cells

 In plant cell, large central vacuole may act as lysosome
 In plant and fungi, certain vacuoles carry out enzymatic hydrolysis. Many biologists
consider them a type of lysosomes.
 Absent in prokaryotes

3) Size

 Vary in size
 Diameter 0.2 m to 0.5 m

4) Formation

 Lysosomes are synthesized by golgi complex

 Enzymes of lysosomes are made by RER and then passed to SER
 SER transports enzymes to golgi complex
 Golgi complex modifies enzymatic proteins and then releases enclosed in vesicles now
called lysosomes.

5) Types:

There are two types of lysosomes

 Primary lysosomes
 Secondary lysosomes

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Primary Lysosomes Secondary Lysosomes

Lysosome formed as vesicle from golgi Lysosome formed by the fusion of primary
complex lysosome with food vacule
Smaller Larger
Enzymes are inactive Enzymes are active
Do not undergo digestion Undergo digestion
Cannot eliminate their content outside of Can eliminate their content outside of the
the cell cell

6) Diagram

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7) Functions

i) Intracellular Digestion

a) Introduction

 Lysosomes contain about 40 hydrolytic enzymes that can break all types of
macromolecules e.g. proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, DNA etc.
 Enzymes of lysosome work in acidic (low) pH (about 5).

b) Steps in intracellular digestion

 Ingested food is stored in vesicles called food vacuoles.

 Primary lysosome fuses with food vacuole and this forms secondary lysosomes
 This fusion activates digestive enzymes of lysosome which start digesting the food
material.
 Digested products are absorbed by cytoplasm and remaining waste containing vesicle is
now called contractile vacuole.
 Contractile vacuole fuses with plasma membrane and waste is eliminated outside.

ii) Autophagy

a) Introduction

 The process by which unwanted structures within cell are engulfed and digested by
lysosomes is called Autophagy.
 It is also called self-eating process. (Auto = self, phagy = to eat)
 Lysosomes that do autophagy are called autophagosomes

ii) Occurrence

 Autophagy occurs in routine to control number of number of specific organelle

 For example when during heavy muscular exercise number of mitochondria in muscles
increase but after the exercise their number is decreased by autophagy
 Autophagy can also occur in starvation to obtain energy.

iii) Autolysis

a) Introduction

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 Self-killing of the cell by releasing the enzymes of lysosomes inside the cell is called
autolysis.
 It is a type of programmed cell death
 Due to this function, lysosomes are known as suicidal bags

b) Occurrence

 Occurs mostly during development phase

 Lysosomes burst and release their content inside the cell
 Cell breaks into fragments which are phagocytosed by other cells

8) Lysosomal Storage Diseases

a) Introduction

 Complications caused by accumulation of various substances due to missing of one or

more lysosomal enzymes are called lysosomal storage diseases
 These diseases are genetic and congenital. Most of them are fatal in early childhood.
 About more than 20 lysosomal dieases are known so far.
b) Example
 Tay-Sachs Disease
 In this lipid digesting enzyme is missing or inactive
 Due to which lipid accumulates in brain cells
 Brain becomes impaired.
Peroxisomes and Glyoxysomes

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Peroxisomes and Glyoxysomes

1) Introduction

 Both peroxisomes and glyoxysomes are collectively called microbodies

 They are similar to lysosomes as they are;
 Single membranous
 Vesicular
 Contain digestive enzymes
 Originate from golgi complex
 They are different from lysosome as they
 Are smaller in size
 Contain different enzymes
 Occurrence is different

2) Peroxisomes

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i) Discovery

 Peroxisomes were discovered in 1965

 (By De Duve)

ii) Etymology

 They are involved in formation and decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),

therefore they are known as peroxisomes.

iii) Size:

 0.5 to 1 micrometer

iv) Occurrence

 Occurs in eukaryotes
 Absent in prokaryotes
 Abundant in liver cells

v) Contents

 Contain oxidative enzymes ( called oxidases)

 e.g. peroxidase, catalase, glycolic acid oxidase

vi) Functions

 Mainly detoxification of alcohol

 In plants, peroxisomes do photorespiration;

3) Glyoxysomes
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i) Occurrence

 They occur in oil seed plants

 Absent in animal cells

ii) Etymology
They are involved in a cyclic process called glyoxylate cycle therefore they are called
glyoxysomes.
iii) Presence
 Present only at seedling stage
iv) Contents
 Contain enzymes for plant lipid metabolism
v) Function

 In germinating seedlings, enzymes of glyoxysome convert stored fatty acids (lipids) into
carbohydrates. This process is called glyoxylate cycle.

Vacuoles

1) Definition

Vacuoles are large vesicles that originate from endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex and
plasma membrane.

2) Size

 They vary in size

 Small vacuoles in animal cells
 Large vacuoles in plant cells

3) Occurrence

 They occur in eukaryotes

 Absent in prokaryotes
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4) Vacuoles in Animal & Animal-like Cells

a) Animal Cells

 Animal cells usually have food vacuoles

 Food vacuoles are formed by invagination of plasma membrane around food. This
process is called phagocytosis.
 Food vacuole fuses with lysosome for the digestion of food substance

b) Animal-like Cells

 Many freshwater protists have contractile vacuoles that pump excess water out of the
cell.
 They help in maintaining concentration of ions and molecules inside the cell

5) Plant Vacuoles

a) In Young Plant Cells

 In young plant cells, many small vacuoles are present

 These small vacuoles;
 Can hold reserves of important organic compounds
 In some plants they can store poisonous or unpleasant for protection against
herbivores.

b) In Mature Plant Cells

 Mature plant cells have large vacuoles

 Large vacuoles are formed by fusion of small vacuoles
 Present at the centre of cell therefore also called central vacuole
 Membrane of the central vacuole is called tonoplast
 The solution inside the central vacuole is called cell sap.
 Central vacuole ;
 Is main reservoir of inorganic ions e.g K+1, Cl-1 etc.
 Acts as storehouse of the plant cell
 Provides mechanical support by developing turgor pressure.

Mitochondria

1) Definition
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Double membrane organelle that acts as powerhouse (make energy) of cell is known as
mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria)

2) Occurrence

 They occur in all eukaryotic cells (except mammalian mature RBCs)

 Absent in prokaryotes

3) Number

 Their number varies

 Some cells have single large mitochondrion
 Most of the cells contain hundreds and thousands of mitochondria
 Cells with high metabolic activity have large number of mitochondria e.g. muscle cells

4) Formation

 New mitochondria are formed by the division of pre-existing mitochondria

 Mitochondria usually divide before the cell division but can also divide when large
amount of energy is required e.g. during hard exercise
 Their number is regulated by lysosomes. Lysosomes digest extra mitochondria

5) Shape & Size

 They are cylindrical or rod shaped

 2 to 5 micrometer long and have 0.5 to 1.5 micrometer diameter

6) Structure

i) Double membrane

 Mitochondria are double membrane bounded organelles; outer membrane and inner
membrane
 Both are phospholipid bilayer in which unique proteins are embedded.
a) Outer Membrane
 It is smooth and sieve-like
 It has special embedded proteins called porins
 Porins allow free passage of various molecules to the space between outer and
inner membrane
 Porins are responsible for the transport of substances across the membrane
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b) Inner Membrane
 It is rough and folded inwards
 Folds of inner membrane are called cristae (single: crista)
 Presence of cristae increases surface are for the reactions
 It is selectively permeable membrane

ii) F1 Particles

 Its inner surface has granular structures called Stalk particles or F1 particles.
 These are ATP synthase enzymes

iii) Protein Complexes

 Many other protein complexes are present in inner membrane

 They act as electron carriers in electron transport chain (ETC)

iv) Intermembrane Space

 It is the space between outer and inner membrane

 It is very important for the synthesis of ATP

v) Mitochondrial Matrix

 It is enclosed by inner membrane

 It is jelly-like
 It contains, DNA, RNAs, ribosome, enzymes and other substances

vi) Mitochondrial Nucleic Acids

 Single circular DNA and all types of RNA molecules

 Their genes resemble genes of prokaryotes

vii) Mitochondrial Ribosome

 It is 70s
 Resembles to ribosome of prokaryotes

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7) Function

 Perform aerobic respiration: use oxygen to make ATP molecules from sugars, fats etc.
 Krebs cycle and electron transport chain reactions occur in mitochondria

8) As endosymbiont
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 Mitochondrion is considered organism within organism (endosymbiont) or cell within

cell
 They are considered as organism/cell because;
 They are self-replicating
 They have their own genetic system
 They have all types of RNA
 Have their own ribosomes
 Synthesize their own proteins
 They can survive outside the cell on artificial medium
 Mitochondria resemble to prokaryotes (e.g. 70s ribosome)
 Biologists believe that ancestral eukaryotic cell engulfed mitochondrion and then
instead of eating it, both develop relationship and start living together (endosymbiont)

Plastids

Outline

1) Definition
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Plastids are double membrane organelles that perform the function of synthesis and storage
of important molecules in plants and algae

2) Occurrence

 They occur in plants and algae

 Absent in prokaryotes

3) Types: Following are the main types;

 Proplastids
 Leucoplasts
 Chromoplasts
 Chloroplasts

i) Proplastids

Proplastids are young, immature and developing plastids

a) Location
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 Proplastids are located in meristematic tissue

 They divide repeatedly and distributed in different types of cells.

b) Color

 They are colorless (non-pigmented)

c) Function
 When a plant cells mature their proplastids also develop in a special type
 Depending on the cell type, internal factors, exposure to light etc. a proplast can
develop into any type e.g. chloroplast, chromoplast, leucoplast
ii) Leucoplasts
a) Location
 Leucoplast are found in food storing parts of the plant e.g. cells of stem, root and seed
b) Color
 They are colorless (non-pigmented)
c) Function
 Leucoplast are involved in storage of various food substances
d) Types
Based stored food substance they are divided into three types;
 Amyloplasts: store starch
 Elaioplasts: store lipids
 Proteinoplast: store proteins

e) Etioplasts

 Etioplasts are special type of leucoplasts

 They become chloroplasts when exposed to light and vice versa

iii) Chromoplasts

a) Location

 Chromoplasts are found in colorful parts of plants e.g. in petals of flowers and fruit wall

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 They synthesize and store different pigments other than green

b) Color:

 They have pigments other than green

b) Function
 Colourful petals of flowers attract insects for pollination
 Colourful fruits attract animals e.g birds for seed dispersal
iv) Chloroplasts
a) Location
 Present in green parts of the plant
b) Color
 They are green in color
c) Structure
Chloroplast is a discoid structure which consists of three parts; envelope, stroma and
thylakoid.
 Envelope
 Consists of two membranes, outer and inner.
 Outer membrane is smooth and contains porins. Due to porins it is freely
permeable to small molecules
 Inner membrane is semi-permeable
 Space between outer and inner membrane is 25-75 angstrom (Ao)

 Stroma
 Ground mass (matrix) of chloroplast is called stroma
 It is colorless, aqueous, proteinaceous substance
 It contains single circular DNA, all types of RNAs and 70s ribosomes and various
enzymes
 Thylakoids
 It is a system of double membrane lamellae (layer) in stroma
 Lamellae forms flattened sac-like structures called thylakoids
 There are two types of thylakoids; smaller and larger
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Smaller Thylakoids
 Smaller disc-like thylakoids are called grana lamellae
 Grana lamellae pile over on another and form a stack called granum (plural:
grana)
 Each granum consist of 25-50 smaller thylakoids
 There are about 40 to 60 grana in each chloroplast
 Membranes of smaller thylakoids contain chlorophyll
 Light reactions (1st phase) of photosynthesis occur in membranes of these
thylakoids.

Larger Thylakoids

 Larger thylakoids are called stroma lamellae

 They connect grana with each other therefore also called intergrana
 Membranes of larger thylakoids are colorless as they do not contain
pigments

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c) Function

 Chloroplasts contains chlorophyll pigment which performs the process of

photosynthesis
 Light reactions occur in membranes of grana
 Dark reactions occur in stroma

Centrioles

1) Definition

Centrioles are non-membranous cell organelles that form spindle fibres during cell division

2) Occurrence

 They occur mainly in animal cells

 Also present in some fungi-like organisms e.g slime molds and water molds
 Absent in higher plants most fungi and prokaryotes

3) Shape and Size

 Centrioles are rod shaped structures

 They are 0.3 to 2 micrometer long and 0.15 to 0.25 in diameter

4) Location

 Centrioles lie in a distinctly staining region of cytoplasm called centrosphere

 They are usually present in pairs
 They occur at right angle to each other near one pole of nucleus
 Centrioles and centrosphere are collectively called centrosome

5) Structure

 Each centriole consists of 9 triplets of microtubules (triplet: set of three; 9 × 3 = 27

microtubules)
 Triplets of microtubules are circularly arranged around a central axis

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6) Diagram

7) Functions

 Just before division, two centrioles duplicate and make two pairs
 Pairs of centrioles migrate to opposite sides of nucleus
 Pairs of centrioles form spindle fibres during cell division (prophase)
 The whole set of spindle fibres is called mitotic apparatus which helps in distribution of
chromosomes

 Centrioles also give rise to basal bodies or kinetosome of cilia and flagella
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Cytoskeleton

Outline

1) Definition

Cytoskeleton is a network of three different types of fibrous structures known as

microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments

2) Occurrence

 Present in eukaryotic cells

 Absent in prokaryotic cells

3) Location
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Components of cytoskeleton are present from nuclear membrane to plasma membrane

throughout the cytoplasm.

4) Microfilaments

i) Shape & Size

 Microfilaments occur in bundles or mesh-like networks

 They are elongated fibrous structures
 They are extremely thin, 7 nm in diameter

ii) Composition

 Microfilaments are mainly made of actin protein, therefore also called actin filaments
 Some other proteins are also found in microfilaments e.g. tropomysosin and troponin

iii) Structure

 Microfilament consists of two chains of units (monomers) of actin called globular actin
(G-actin)
 Globular actin units arrange in helical manner to make a chain
 Each chain is called fibrous or filamentous actin (F-actin)
 Two chains of tropomyosin (protein) twist around single microfilament
 Troponin protein occurs in triplets at intervals along the length

iv) Diagram

v) Location

 Microfilaments are found just under the plasma membrane

vi) Function

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 They contract and relax and produce circular streaming movement of cytoplasm
(cyclosis)
 In muscle cells they are found in abundance and called myofibrils, where they enable
cells for contraction and relaxation

5) Microtubules

i) Shape & Size

 Microtubules are small hollow cylinders (tube-like)

 25 nm in diameter and 0.2 to 25 in length

ii) Composition

 Microtubules are made of tubulin protein

 Tubulin protein is a dimer i.e. consists of two subunits which are known as alpha and
beta subunits

iii) Structure

 Tubulin dimers form paired filaments by their linear arrangements

 Paired filaments twist or coil to form tubular structure called microtubule

iv) Diagram

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v) Location

 In plant cell microtubules are dispersed throughout the cytoplasm

 In animal cell they are usually found adjacent to nucleus

vi) Function

 In plant cells microtubules form spindle-like structure called mitotic apparatus during
cell division
 In animal cell microtubules are involved in the formation of centrioles, cilia, flagella and
basal body

6) Intermediate Filaments

i) Shape and Size

 Linear fibre-like structures

 8 to 10 nm in diameter
 Intermediate in size between microfilaments and microtubules that is why they are
called intermediate filaments

ii) Composition

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 Intermediate filaments are composed of vimentin protein units

iii) Structure

 Vimentin protein units form chains or strings in linear arrangement

 Each intermediate filament consists of three chains of vimentin units
 Three chains twist around each other in such a way that no hollow space is left among
them

iv) Diagram

v) Location

 Intermediate filaments form a network extending from nuclear membrane to plasma

membrane

vi) Function

 They provide mechanical support to nuclear envelop and plasma membrane

Structure of Cilia and |Flagella

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3) Structure of Cilia & Flagella: Both cilia and flagella consist of following parts;
a) Basal Body
• In eukaryotes cilia and flagella both originate from centriole termed as basal body
• Basal body is cylindrical and is made of 9 triplets of microtubules (as centriole)
b) Axoneme
• It is longitudinal structure made of 11 microfibrils
• It is covered by cytoplasm and cell membrane sheath which is continuous with cell
membrane of cell
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• 11 fibrils of axoneme are two types and occur in 9+2 formula
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ii) 2 Central Microfibrils

• They are singlet i.e. not fused with each other
• They are connected by proteineous bridge called central bridge
• Both are covered in a sheath called central sheath

Working Mechanism of cilia and flagella

Mechanism
• Peripheral doublet microfibrils slide each other
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• Sliding is driven by ATP energy

• Dynein arms of tubule A are activated through ATP energy and hold tubule B
• Binding of Dynein arms of tubule A with tubule B triggers the sliding of doublet
microfibrils
• Nine doublet microfibrils contract in two groups
• First 5 out of 9 doublet microfibrils contract or shorten and these microtubules slide
other microtubules. This is called effective stroke
• Sliding is restricted due to radial spoke and nexin, therefore sliding results in bending
at point of restriction
• Then 4 out of 9 doublet microfibrils contract and cilia or flagella become straight.
This is called recovery stroke.
• Dynein arm is molecular motor and it acts as ATPase enzyme
• Flagella produce rapid successive waves of bending from attached end to free end .
It propels flagella forward

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Movement of flagella

Nucleus

1) Definition

Double membrane organelle of the cell that controls all the activities of the cell is known as
nucleus

2) Occurrence

 Present in eukaryotes
 Absent in prokaryotes

3) Location

 Present at periphery in plant cells due to central large vacuole

 Located at centre in animal and other eukaryotic cells

4) Structure

i) Nuclear Envelope

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Introduction

 Nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane is a double membrane covering which makes

the boundary of nucleus
 Membranes are composed lipid bilayer and proteins
 Outer membrane is covered with ribosomes and is connected to with endoplasmic
reticulum
 Following are the features of nuclear envelope;

a) Perinuclear Space

 It is the space between the two membranes of nuclear envelope

 It is filled with fluid

b) Nuclear Pores

 Pores in nuclear envelope are known as nuclear pores

 These are composed of specialized protein called nucleoporin
 At the point of nuclear pore both membranes are interconnected
 These pores regulate the nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange of materials.

c) Nucleo-cytoplasmic Exchange

 It is exchange of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm

 It includes;
 RNA and ribosomal proteins moving from nucleus to cytoplasm
 Proteins e.g. DNA polymerase, carbohydrates, chemical signals, and lipids moving
from cytoplasm to nucleus
 Smaller molecules move through simple diffusion
 Larger molecules are recognized by specific signal sequences and then be moved in or
out with the help of nucleoporin
 Exchange of materials may be passive or active
d) Nuclear Lamina
 It is a net-like array of protein filaments
 It is present inner side of the nuclear envelope except at the pores
 It maintains the shape of nucleus by providing mechanical support

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ii) Nucleoplasm

a) Chemical Nature

 Nucleoplasm is the mixture of

 Proteins (histone, non-histone and other)
 Enzymes (DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase)
 Free nucleotides
 Metal ions e.g. Mg+2
 It is slightly different from cytoplasm

b) Physical Nature

 Nucleoplasm is transparent
 Semi-fluid (jelly-like)

iii) Nucleolus

a) Definition

 It is non-membranous structure in the nucleus where ribosomes are synthesized

 It appears during interphase and disappears during cell division
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b) Number

 A cell may one or more nucleoli

c) Regions

 Nucleolus consists of two regions i.e peripheral and central

 Outer peripheral region is granular and contains ribosomal subunits
 Central region is fibriler and contains rRNA and rDNA

d) Function

 Nucleolus is the site of /factory of ribosome synthesis

iv) Chromatin and chromosomes

a) Chromatin

 Thin, thread-like structure made of DNA and histone proteins is called chromatin
 Chromatin fibres condense during cell division and make separate structures called
chromosomes

b) Chromosomes

 Chromosomes are thick and rod-like

 Only visible in dividing cells
 A typical chromosome consists of following parts;
 Chromatids
 A typical chromosome consists of two chromatids
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 These are the strands of chromosomes

 Centromere
 Point of attachment of two chromatids is known as centromere
 Primary Constriction
 Thiner part of the chromosome where centromere is present is called primary
constriction
 Kinetochores
 Each centromere has two plaques of proteins called kinetochores
 Kinetochores are oriented on the opposite sides of the primary constriction
 Kinetochore forms the site of attachment of single spindle fibre during cell
division
 Secondary Constriction
 Some chromosomes may have another point of union along the length of
chromatids called secondary constriction
 It is also called nuclear organizer
 It gives rise to nucleoli during interphase
 At least one pair of homologous chromosomes have nuclear organizer
 Satellite
 Next to secondary constriction, the end becomes knob like and is called satellite
 Junk DNA
 Satellite region of chromosome contains useless sequences of DNA and is called
Junk DNA
 Telomeres
 Terminal ends of chromosome are called telomeres
 Telomeres prevent the two chromosomes to attach with each other from their
ends
 Chromosomal Staining
 Chromosomes are stained with acetocarmine or aceto-orcin.
 Some parts of the chromosome take less stain and appear lighter in colour. These
areas are called euchromatin
 Some parts of the chromosomes take more stain and appear darker. These are
called heterochromatin

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 Identification
 Individual chromosomes can be identified by their size and shape

5) Function

 Nucleus controls all the cellular activities

 It contains heredity material DNA

STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA (PROKARYOTE)

1) Cell Envelope

 Cell envelope is defined as outer wrapping of the bacterial cell is called cell envelope
 It consists of two components i.e. glycocalyx and cell wall
i) Glycocalyx
a) Definition
Glycocalyx is covering that surrounds cell wall of some bacteria
b) Composition
 Generally it is made of polysaccharides
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 Sometimes glycoproteins also from glycocalyx

c) Types
There are two types of glycocalyx
 Capsule
 Slime layer

Property Capsule Slime layer

Attachment Tightly bounded to cell wall Loosely bounded to cell wall
Detachment Cannot be removed easily Can be removed easily
Thickness Thicker Thinner
Organization Condense and well organized Loose and unorganized
Composition Mainly polysachharides Polysaccharides, glycoproteins,
glycolipids
Nature Sticky and gummy Slippery
Role Attachment to host tissue, protection Due to slippery nature prevents
from immune cells phagocytosis by immune cells

ii) Cell Wall

 Present in all bacteria except mycoplasma

 Bacterial cell wall is different from eukaryotic
 Bacterial cell wall is made of peptidoglycan (also called murein)

2) Plasma Membrane

 Present beneath the cell wall

 Lacks cholesterol (present in plasma membrane of eukaryotes)
 At certain points plasma membrane invaginates into the cytoplasm to form infoldings
called mesosomes
 Plasma membrane of bacteria is involved in transport of substance, cellular respiration,
photosynthesis and DNA replication.

3) Cytoplasm

 Jelly-like dense mass

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 It lacks cytoskeleton and organelles other than ribosomes

 Bacterial cytoplasm contains following materials;

a) Ribosome

 It is only organelle of the bacterial cell

 It is 70s ribosome
 Consists of two subunits i.e. small (30s) and large (50s)
 Involved in protein synthesis

b) Granules

 Food or waste material are stored as granules

 Food granules may be of glycogens, proteins, fats
 Waste may consists of alcohol, lactic acid, acetic acid

c) Bacterial chromosome

 Single chromosome

d) Plasmid

 Some bacteria contain small circular DNA extra chromosomal DNA called plasmid

4) Nucleoid

a) Introduction

 It is the region where bacterial chromosome is present

 It is not bounded by membrane
 It appears lighter than surrounding cytoplasm

b) Bacterial Chromosome

 Consists of single circular double stranded DNA

 No histone proteins
 Contains no introns (non-coding part of DNA or RNA)
 Chromosomal or nuclear DNA controls the growth and metabolic activities of the cell

c) Haploid Nature
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 Bacteria have single chromosome so they are haploid (1n) in nature

 Before the division DNA is replicated so bacterial cell becomes diploid for short time just
before the division

d) Plasmid

 Some bacteria contain small circular DNA extra chromosomal DNA called plasmid
 Plasmid may be one or multiples
 Plasmids often contain genes for antibiotic resistance and heavy metal resistance
 Plasmids are of two types
 Transmissible Plasmids: Can be transferred from one cell to another cell
 Non- Transmissible Plasmids: Cannot be transferred from cell to cell
 Plasmids are used as vectors in genetic engineering

Cell Appendages

a) Definition
Structures that project from the surface of bacterial cells are called cell appendages or cell
extensions
b) Types:
Two types of appendages are found in bacteria
 Flagella
 Pilli or Fimbriae
c) Flagella
 Bacterial flagella consists of flagellin protein
 They lack microtubules
d) Pilli or Fimbriae
 They are tubular extension of cell membrane that project through the cell wall
 They are made of pilin protein
 Can be seen through electron microscope
 Occur only in few species of gram negative bacteria
 They are involved in attachment of the cell to the surface of tissue
 They are also used in transfer of genetic material from one cell to another cell in the
process of conjugation

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6) Bacterial Cell Division

 Bacteria divide through binary fission ( a type of asexual reproduction)
 Binary fission
 Does not involve spindle fibre formation
 Is direct and rapid
 Is different from mitosis or meiosis

Movement of flagella
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