CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

INTRODUCTION
 The term cell was first introduced by Robert Hooke in 1665.
 A new born baby contains about 2 trillion cells while an adult contain 60 trillion
cells.
 In each day human being slough off and replace 1 percent of its cells or about
600 billion.
 After a period of time Robert Brown in 1831 discover a spherical body which he
called nucleus.
 CELL THEORY
 Cell theory was given by Schleiden (Botanist) and Schwann (zoologist).
 This theory consists of following postulates:
1. All organisms are composed of cells which may be unicellular or multicellular.
2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
3. Cell is a de-novo structure means that cell can arise from non-cellular material.
 In 1855 Rudolf Virchow and he add third point in cell theory that

 All the cells are come from pre-existing cell, cell is not a de-novo structure.
 After cell theory now cell can be defined as:

CELL
 is the structural and functional unit of living organism made up of protoplasm
Cell
containing nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm and bound by cell membrane.
 TECHNIQUES USED IN CELL BIOLOGY
 To study the cell structure and function following procedures are required:
1. Cell fractionation

2. Differential staining

3. Micro dissections

4. Tissue culture

5. Chromatography

6. Electrophoresis

7. Spectrophotometry

8. Microscopy

9. Micrometry
CELL FRACTIONATION
 Isolation of cellular component (organelles) based on size and density in order to
determine the chemical composition called as cell fractionation.
 It consist of:
1. Homogenization

2. Sedimentation

HOMOGENIZATION
 All cells are placed in a homogenizer which break down the cells in different
components in a suitable environment, this process is called as homogenization.
 Homogenization gives uniform mixture of cells.

 In case of plant cell an enzyme pectinase is used to dissolve the middle lamellae.
CENTRIFUGE MACHINE
SEDIMENTATION / CENTRIFUGATION
 To study the individual organelles, homogenate is subjected to a spinning action
called as centrifugation which can be achieved through the centrifuge machine.
 During centrifugation the heavy particles like organelles settle down in the
bottom called as pellet or sediment, while the suspended above in the liquid
called as supernatant.
 For smaller particles higher gravitational force is required like microsomes,
mitochondria etc.
 For larger particles low gravitational force is required like nucleus.
 This is a stepwise process, initially low speed is used to settle down the heavy
particles, then gradually the speed become increase to settle down the smaller
particles.
STAINING
 To study the difference b/w two transparent cell or tissues, certain dyes/colours
are used, this technique is called as staining.
 Like in case of WBCs we used different dyes, this is called as differential
staining.
 There are two types of staining:

1. Single staining (only one stain is used like borax camine for Nucleus)

2. Double staining (Two stains are used like haematoxylin and eosin)
MICRODISSECTION
 A technique used to isolate specific cells like tumor cell, embryonic cells with the
help of microscope.
 MICROMETRY
 Micrometry is the
measurement of the size of objects under microscope.
 It requires special device of measurement called as micrometer.
NOTE
 To study the colourless or transparent specimen, a special type of microscope is
used called as phase contrast microscope.
TISSUE CULTURE
 A technique used to grow different cells, tissues or organs in an artificial defined
nutrient medium under controlled environment.
 It can be performed in test tube or petri dish.
 This technique was first performed on plant b/c plant cells are totipotent.
 A single cell of interest, placed in a defined medium will starts to divide and
form a undifferentiated mass of cells called as callus.
 Callus is differentiated into root and shoot and develop into a new plant.

 Animal tissues or cells are culture to see any abnormality in the cell like cancer,
chromosomal number.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
 A technique used to separate different components from mixture is called as
chromatography.
 It is commonly used to separate the proteins, amino acid or photosynthetic
pigment from mixture.
 There are certain types of chromatography:
1. Paper chromatography

2. Thin layer chromatography (TLC)

3. Gas chromatography

4. High performance liquid chromatography

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
 It is most simple and widely used technique.
 It involves two phases:
1. Mobile phase
2. Stationary phase

Chamber Lid

Cellulose filter paper

Leaf Extract solution

ELECTROPHORESIS
 A technique used to separate charged molecules based on their size and
electrical charge.
 It is commonly used to separate the DNA, RNA or protein molecules.
 MICROSCOPY
 Microscopy is the
study of microscope.
 The word microscope is taken from Greek language micros means “small” and
scopein means “to see”
 Microscope was invented by David Jansen in 1590.

 In 1610 Galileo designed it properly.

 Microscope is an instrument used to see those object which cannot be seen by
naked eyes.
 The knowledge about the sub-cellular structure i-e organelle has been improved by
the development of powerful microscope.
 In microscopy three aspects are very important:
1. Magnification

2. Resolution

3. Contrast

MAGNIFICATION
 Magnification means increase
in the apparent size of an object.
 In light microscope the specimen can be magnified as much as 10,000x.
RESOLUTION
 It can be defined as the capacity of a microscope to separate the two adjacent
objects.
 The degree of fineness where image can be produced.
 The Resolution of light microscope is 500 times better than human eyes.
 The resolution of electron microscope is 10,000 times better than human eye, that’s
why most of the organelles are studied under the electron microscope.

CONTRAST
 It is the difference b/w two cells or organelles or any object.
 It is obtained by fixing and staining the object.
 EUKARYOTIC CELL
 Generally all the eukaryotic cells have three major components:
1. Nucleus

2. Cytoplasm

3. Cell membrane
 But in case of plant cell there is one additional component that is:
1. Cell wall
 (CELL WALL)
 Cell wall is a non living component.
 It is mainly made up of cellulose.
 It is found in plants, fungi, algae and bacteria.
 Cell wall of bacteria is made up of peptidoglycan.

 Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin.

 Cell wall of algae and plant is made up of cellulose.

 Plant cell wall is made up of three layers:
1. Middle layer

2. Primary layer

3. Secondary layer
 (MIDDLE LAMELLA)
 The first layer of cell plate which act as cement between two cells.
 When this layer become dissolve, two cells become separate.
 It is made of calcium, magnesium and pectins.
 Pectin is a hetero-polysaccharides.

 Main compound of pectin is galacturonic acid.

 (PRIMARY WALL)
 It is first produced by cell, synthesized by protoplast deposited on the inner side of
middle lamella.
 Initially it remain thin and elastic due to enlarging cells, as the cell get maturity
it become thick and hard.
 It is made up of cellulose (25%), hemicellulose (50%) and pectin.
 Hemicellulose contain different monosaccharide.

 Celluloses form matrix of micro fibrils (Chain of cellulose).

 (SECONDARY WALL)
 It is formed by the deposition of cellulose, Hemicellulose, inorganic salt, waxes at the
inside of primary wall.
 It may be modified through the deposition of lignin and other substances.
 In cell wall there are some places where the process of deposition does not
takes place these places are called as plasmodesmata (plasmodesma).
 (FUNCTION OF CELL WALL)
 It acts as skeletal frame work of plants which provide:
1. Shape
2. Support
3. Protection
 Being hydrophilic it helps in the transportation of water and solutes towards the
protoplasm.
 It acts as permeable structure.

(NOTE)
 Cellulose is used in manufacture of paper, cloths and curtains.
 Non polar end is hydrophobic in nature and face each other.
 Polar end is hydrophilic in nature and associated with carbohydrates and protein
etc.
 Plasma membrane also possesses some lipid like cholesterol up to 50%.
 Plasma membrane of plant cell and bacterial cell lack cholesterol.
 Plasma membrane consists of 60-80% protein, 20-40% lipid and small quantity of
carbohydrate.
 The lipid portion maintain the fluidity of plasma membrane.
 Cholesterol helps in the stabilization of plasma membrane.
 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
 In 1972, two scientists Singer and Nicolson proposed this model during work on
plasma membrane.
 According to this model the lipid molecules are present in a fluid state and
proteins are present in mosaic form.
 Lipid behaves like a sea and in this fluid protein behave as icebergs.

 The proteins associated with lipid membrane are of two types:

1. Integral protein (Intrinsic protein)
2. Peripheral protein (Extrinsic proteins)
 (INTEGRAL PROTEIN)
 A class of protein that is directly incorporated with the lipid bilayer.
 These types of protein behave as channel which allow the movement of water
and water soluble molecules like ions from in and out the cell.

(PERIPHERAL PROTEIN)
 A class of protein that is located on the outer surface of the lipid bilayer or in the
cytoplasmic surface.
 This protein is also associated with carbohydrates (glycoprotein) or with lipid
(lipoprotein).
 These types of protein behave as receptors, enzymes and antigens.
 (NOTE)
 Different type of cells contain different plasma proteins like RBCs contain
antigen A, B, AB or O blood group.
 Either acceptance or rejection of a blood group, transplantation of kidney, heart or
other organs are also depend upon the peripheral protein.
ROLE OF GLYCOLIPID AND GLYCOPROTEINS
 These conjugated molecules maintain the stability of plasma membrane.
 They also aid in the cell to cell interaction to form tissues.
 Play important role in cellular identification during immune response.
 (FUNCTION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE)
 Protection of cell cytoplasm.
 Regulate the flow of solution and materials in and out the cell with certain
limitation.
 The limitation and check in the flow across the membrane called as selective or
differential permeability.
 Transportation is very important to
maintain the balance of pH, ionic
concentration etc for the activity of enzymes and excrete toxic substances.
 Generally there are two types of transport:
1. Active transport
2. Passive transport
(PASSIVE TRANSPORT)
 In passive transport molecules are always move from higher concentration to
lower concentration.
 In this type of transportation there is no need of energy.
 Generally there are two types of passive transport:
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
DIFFUSION
 The term diffusion is used for the movement of gaseous molecules (CO2 and O2).
OSMOSIS
 The term osmosis is used for the movement of water molecules.
 (ACTIVE TRANSPORT)
 In active transport molecules are always move from lower concentration
towards the higher concentration.
 In this type of transportation there is need of energy.

Extracellular Environment
Extracellular Environment

P Glucose molecules
AT AT
P

Glucose molecules
 There are two types of active transport:
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis

ENDOCYTOSIS
 The process in which cell membrane helps to take in material by in folding in the
form of vacuole.
 Endocytosis may be:
1. Pinocytosis
2. Phagocytosis
 In phagocytosis cell engulf solid particles that’s why also called as cell eating
process.
 Like WBCs engulf foreign particles.
 In pinocytosis cell engulf liquid particles that’s why also called as cell drinking
process.
 Like the Nephron engulf water.
EXOCYTOSIS
 The process in which cell membrane helps to take out material by out folding in
the form of vacuole.
 Like extra material of cell or cellular components.
 CYTOPLASM AND CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
 The portion between the plasma membrane and nuclear membrane called as
cytoplasm.
 It is divided into two regions the outer one called as ectoplasm/cytogel while
the inner one called as endoplasm/cytosol.
 Cytosol is a watery solution of salts, amino acids, sugar, proteins, fatty acid, nucleotides,
hormones, enzymes etc.
 The cytoplasm shows active streaming movements around the inner surface
this movement is called as cyclosis.
 Cytoplasm plays important role:
1. Storage

2. Metabolism
 CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
 A list of variety of cytoplasmic organelle are as follows:
1. Endoplasmic reticulum 7. Glyoxysomes

2. Mitochondria 8. Golgi bodies

3. Lysosomes 9. Plastids

4. Peroxisomes 10. Vacuoles

5. Cytoskeleton 11. Ribosome

6. Centrioles
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 A meshwork of flattened sacs (Cisternae) extend from nuclear membrane to
plasma membrane.
 It is made up of lipoprotein.
 There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum or Granulated

2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum or Agranulated

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is associated with ribosomes, thus it helps in the
synthesis of protein.
 It mostly found in protein synthesis cells such as salivary glands (Amylase) and
pancreas (Insulin).
 Provide mechanical support to the cell.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 It is abundantly found in liver cells, skeletal muscle cells, lipid producing cells.
 In the livers cells it aid in the detoxification of drugs and harmful substances.
 In skeletal muscles cells it play important role in the storage and release of Ca
ions.
 In the lipid producing cells like testis, ovaries, skins cells it synthesize lipid,
cholesterol, phospholipid etc.
 Helps in metabolism of carbohydrates.
 Also helps in the import and export of substance like protein from RER to Golgi
bodies.
 Provide mechanical support to the cell.
 NOTE
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum converts cholesterol in the skin cells into vitamin D in
the presence of sunlight.
 Vitamin D is very essential
for healthy development of bones.
 The women of Bedouine tribe city of North America wear dark garment which
prevent them from the exposure of light, so they have very weak bones.
 RIBOSOMES
 They are so called as b/c they contain high concentration of RNA.
 These are the site of protein synthesis in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes that is
why called as protein factories of cells.
 They are composed of about 50 or more different proteins.
 Each ribosomes consist of two unequal units, the large unit is dome shaped (60S)
and smaller one forms a cape on the flat surface of large units (40S).
 Ribosomes are the smallest organelle but most vital cellular
component.
 Ribosomes also found in mitochondrial matrix and chloroplast.
 In prokaryote the size of ribosomes is 70S.
 In Eukaryote the size of ribosomes is 80S.
 The ribosomes composed of ribonucleoprotein i-e RNA (40%) and Protein (60%).
 Attachment of many ribosomes with a mRNA called as polysome/polyribosome.
 GOLGI BODIES
 It is so called as b/c it was 1st discover by Camelio Golgi.
 Also called as Golgi bodies, Golgi complex and dictyosome.
 In case of plant it is refer as dictyosome while in case of animal it refer as
golgi complex.
 Usually in animal cell a single Golgi apparatus is found in each cell while in case
of plant it is found in set that’s why called as dictyosomes.
 It consists of double membrane.
 Inner membrane consists of disc-shaped central, flattened plate like
compartment called as cisternae.
 Peripherally vesicles or Golgi vacuoles are present.

 It consists of cis face and trans face.

 FUNCTION OF GOLGI BODIES
 It modified and store the product of E.R and send to the destination.
 Like conversion of primary structure of protein into secondary, tertiary or
quaternary structure of protein.
 It also performs collection, packaging and distribution of enzymes and hormones.
 It is most prominent in glandular cells/secretory cells.
 It also manufactures certain macromolecules like protein and carbohydrates
(Glycoprotein).
 In animal cell it secret certain enzymes, hormones and other substances.
 During cytokinesis Golgi vesicles arrange themselves in the middle and form a
structure called as phragmoplast.
 Phragmoplast consist of proteins.
 LYSOSOME
 Lysosomes are spherical bodies, few micrometers in diameter surrounded by a
single membrane.
 It is originated and formed by Golgi apparatus and found in the cytoplasm.
 It contain digestive/hydrolytic enzymes.
 Lysosome contain acidic contents.

 It is only found in animals cells.

 FUNCTION OF LYSOSOMES
 Lysosomes contain near about 40 digestive enzymes which help in the
phagocytosis of any foreign particles.
 It performs three types of functions:
1. Autolysis

2. Autophagy

3. Intracellular digestion
AUTOPHAGY
 Any damaged or excessive organelle is phagocyte by lysosomes by the help of
different digestive enzymes, this process is called as Autophagy or phagocytosis.

AUTOLYSIS
 Incase of any abnormal or unnecessary cell, lysosome cause the lysis of cell by
a process called as autolysis that’s why some time lysosome called as suicide
bags.

INTRA-CELLULAR DIGESTION
 In animals cell it does not help in the digestion b/c in animal there is no any
intracellular digestion.
 Intracellular digestion is only present in unicellular Eukaryote like amoeba.

 In animal cell it only performs Autophagy and Autolysis.

 LYSOSOMAL STORAGE DISEASES
 Any disturbance in the normal physiology of lysosomes may produce effects
on human health.
 There are about 30 disorder of lysosomes.
 Some are as follows:

DISEASES SYMPTOMS

Tay-sac disease Mental retardation, blindness, death by age 3.

Gaucher,s disease Mental retardation in infantile, Liver and spleen enlargement, erosion
of long bones.

Kreb,s disease Loss of mylein, mental retardation, death by age 2.

 PEROXISOMES
 Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle found in both plants and
animals.
 It contain variety of enzymes like catalase, peroxidase, glycolic acid oxidase etc.
 Peroxisomes helps in the detoxification of alcohol by peroxidase in result of that
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is formed.
 Hydrogen peroxide is a toxic compound that is immediately broken down into
hydrogen and oxygen by an enzyme called as catalase produce from liver.
 In plants it convert glycolate (an acid) into glycine (an
amino acid) by an enzyme called as
glycolic acid oxidase.
 GLYOXYSOMES
 Glyoxysomes are single membrane bound organelle found in plants only.
 They are mostly found in fat storing tissues (Seed).
 It contains enzymes that initiate the conversion of fatty acid into sugar in
cyclic manner called as glyoxylate cycle.
 VACUOLE
 Vacuoles are the liquid filled vesicle mostly found in plant cells.
 Vacuoles are surrounded by a thin membrane called as tonoplast.
 In animal cell it is form temporarily at the time of phagocytosis but in case of
plant cell it is conspicuous organelle.
 In young plant cells many small vacuoles are present which provide protection
to plants against herbivores by storing poisonous or unpleasant compound.
 Mature plant cell contain a central vacuole which provide mechanical support by
producing turgor pressure and reservoir of in organic ions like P, Cl.
 The main function of vacuole is to maintain turgor pressure.
 MITOCHONDRIA
 Chondriosomes areuniversally present in animal and plants cell.
 It is double membrane organelle.
 Outer membrane possess pores made up of protein called as porin.
 Porin regulate the flow of molecules.

 The inner membrane possess irregular, incomplete partitions called as cristae.

 Cristae contain special structure called as F0-F1 which is actually enzyme ATP
synthase.
 Cristae increasethe surface area and contain matrix.
 Matrix consists of enzymes, co-enzymes, DNA, RNA, ribosomes (70S).

 Mitochondria are the center of aerobic respiration/cellular respiration.

 Due to the production of energy (ATP), by respiration of sugar and fat it is

consider as the power house of cell.
NOTE
 Mitochondria has its own DNA, all types of RNA and 70S ribosomes.
 Mitochondria passed from mother note from father into a young one.
 Proteins, require by mitochondria are synthesized by own direction of
mitochondria.
 Mitochondria divide themselves to increase their number by simple process
called as fission.
 PLASTIDS
 They are double membrane bound organelle found in the plants, algae and some
primitive single celled organisms like protoctista.
 It work as chemical synthesizers and storage bodies.
 There are three types of plastids on the basis of pigments:

1. Leucoplast

2. Chloroplast

3. Chromoplast
CHLOROPLAST
 It contains green pigment called as chlorophyll which gives plant green color and
helps in the process of photosynthesis.
 Chloroplast has its own DNA and RNA so it has ability to synthesize new
components.

CHROMOPLAST
 It contains pigment like xanthophyll and carotene which provide various colour
combinations except green.
 It is found in flowers, fruit and other colour parts.
LEUCOPLAST
 These are colourless plastids mostly found in the underground parts of the
plants like root, seed, stem etc.
 They store food material like carbohydrates (Amyloplast) lipid (Elaioplast) and
proteins (Proteoplast).

PROPLASTID
 Proplastids are immature, colourless plastid.
 They consist of double membrane.
 They multiply by division and develop into mature chloroplast, chromoplast and
leucoplast.
 CYTOSKELETON
 The cytosol consists of three fibrous proteins distributed from nucleus to Plasma
membrane called as cytoskeleton.
1. Microfilament

2. Microtubules

3. Intermediate filament
 MICROFILAMENT
 Microfilaments are solid strand about 7nmin diameter.
 They are consists of two actin chain and also contain myosin, tropomycin and
troponin protein.
 It helps in muscle contraction, change in cell shape (like WBC during phagocytosis
of microbes) , and Cytokinesis during cell division, cyclosis and movement of
pseudopodia etc.
 MICROTUBULES
 Microtubules are hollow tubes with an outer diameter of 25nm.
 They are composed of protein tubulin.
 A single microtubules consists of hundreds of thousands tubulin sub units
arranged in 13 columns called as protofilament.
 They are responsible for the movement of chromosomes and organelles within the
cytoplasm.
 Also helps in movement of cilia and flagella.
 (INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT)
 Intermediate filament are solid strands about 8-12 nm intermediate b/w
microfilament and microtubule.
 They are made up of at least five different proteins, which collectively called
as vimentin.
 They do not assemble and disassemble therefore they are important in
maintaining the shape of cell and also provide mechanical support.
 They provide support to the nerve cell.
 (CILIA AND FLAGELLA)
 and flagella both are hair like extension of plasma membrane.
Cilia
 Flagella are longer and less in number than cilia.

 Both cilia and flagella contain ring of pair of nine microtubules.

 This pattern is produce from basal body just beneath the plasma membrane
called as kinetosome.
 CENTRIOLE
 Centrioles are short, barrel shaped structures of microtubules lying perpendicular
to each other.
 Each centriole is made up of nine set of triplet microtubules arranged in ring.
 Centrioles appears during cell division near the area of nucleus called as
centrosomes.
 Centrioles also form kinetosome which form cilia and flagella.
 NUCLEUS
 Nucleus was first
discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.
 Nucleus is considered as the control centre of the cell.

 The shape of nucleus is oval or spherical.

 A typical Nucleus consists of:

1. Nuclear membrane

2. Nucleoplasm

3. Nucleolus

4. Chromatin material
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
 Nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called as nuclear membrane.
 It consist of double membrane.
 It is perforated or having pores called as nuclear pores composed of transport
protein called as nucleoporin, where from the molecules move in and out the
nucleus.

NUCLEOPLASM
 It is the mixture of protein, enzymes, free nucleotides, ions etc.
 Protein like Histone.
 Enzyme like DNA polymerase.
 Ions like Mg.
CHROMATIN MATERIAL
 It is network of thread like structure composed of DNA and Proteins.
 During cell division chromatin material form a definite thread like structure
called as chromosomes.
 Chromosomesconsist of two thin threads like structure called Chromatids
which are attached at a common point called Centromere.
 Centromere contains a special protein called as Kinetochore which helps in
mitosis and meiosis.
 The number of chromosomes varies in species to species.
LIKE
 8 in Fruit fly
 46 in human
 20 in corn
 NUCLEOLUS
 A spherical body within the nucleous which may be one or more than one.
 Nucleolus play important role in the synthesis of RNA and Ribosomes in eukaryotic
cell.
 TYPES OF CHROMOSOEMS
 On the basis of centromere there are four types of chromosomes.
1. Metacentric : Having equal arms
2. Sub-metacentric : Having unequal arms
3. Acrocentric : One arm is short while other is long.
4. Telocentric : Having only one arm.
 PROKARYOTE VS EUKARYOTE
(PROKARYOTES) (EUKARYOTES)
 They do not possess true nucleus.  They possess true nucleus.

 They do not possess membrane bound  They possess membrane bound organelles.
organelles.  Like mitochondria, chloroplast, E.R etc
 Like mitochondria, chloroplast, E.R etc

 They are always unicellular.  They may be multicellular or unicellular.

 They do not possess true chromosomes,  They possess true chromosomes, (presence of
(absence of Histone Protein) Histone Protein)

 Well known examples are Bacteria and  Well known examples are Plants, Animals fungi,
Cyanobacteria. protozoan etc.
 OPEN
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THE DOOR