Cell Structure

Methods of studying cells

 Resolution – the minimum distance apart that two objects can be for them to appear as
separate items
 Resolution depends on the wavelength/form of radiation used
 Increasing magnification, might not improve resolution

Microscope Uses Advantages Disadvantages

Light Uses light rays to observe objects  Can use living organisms  Low magnification
microscope  Doesn’t require harsh chemicals  Low resolution
 Easy to use
 Cheap/portable
Transmissio Uses a beam of electrons focused  High magnification  Can only see dead
n electron by a condenser electromagnet,  High resolution material as a vacuum
microscope which passes through very thin  Can see details inside cells is required
sections of tissues  Harsh chemicals used
Scanning Uses focused beams if electrons  High magnification to prepare which can
electron reflected off the tissues  High resolution result in artefacts
microscope  Can see details of the surfaces (damage)
of structures (not inside)  Expensive
Laser Uses a laser beam of light to  Can see living cells  More expensive than a
scanning illuminate chemical stains within  Can observe cell processes by light microscope
confocal the specimen. These then tracking molecules  More complex than a
microscope fluoresce  Higher resolution than light light microscope
microscopes

Cell Fractionation

 The process of breaking up cells and separating organelles

 Before the process occurs, the tissue is placed in a cold, buffered solution with the same
water potential as the tissue
o Cold – reduces enzyme activity that might break down the organelles
o Same water potential – prevent organelles bursting/shrinking due to osmotic
loss/gain
o Buffered – prevent pH fluctuations, which my alter organelle structure
 There are 2 steps to cell fractionation – Homogenation and Ultracentrifugation
o Homogenation
 cells broken up by a homogeniser
 resultant fluid is the homogenate
 fluid is filtered to remove any complete cells/debris
o Ultracentrifugation
 Fragments in the homogenate are separated in a centrifuge (spins the fluid
at high speeds creating a centrifugal force)
 Tube of filtrate is placed into centrifuge and spun at low speed
 Heaviest organelles (nuclei) are forced to the bottom of the tube where they
form a thin sediment/pellet
 Fluid at the top of the tube (supernatant) is removed, leaving the sediment
  Supernatant is transferred to another tube and spun in the centrifuge at a
higher speed than before
 The next heaviest organelles (mitochondria) are forced to the bottom of the
tube
 Process is continued until all of the organelles are separated

Eukaryotic cell structure

 Larger and have a nucleus bounded by nuclear membranes

Organelle Description Structures

Nucleus  Acts as the control centre of  Nuclear envelope – double membrane, outer membrane is
the cell continuous with the ER. Controls the entry/exit of materials
 Produces mRNA and tRNA in/out of the nucleus
 Retains genetic material in the  Nuclear pores – allow large molecules out of the nucleus.
form of DNA and Around 3000 per nucleus
chromosomes  Nucleoplasm – granular, jelly-like material
 Manufactures rRNA and  Chromosomes – protein bond linear DNA
ribosomes  Nucleolus – manufactures rRNA and assembles RNA
Mitochondrio  Rod-shaped  Double membrane – controls the entry/exit of materials in/out
n  Site of aerobic respiration  Cristae – extensions of the inner membrane, provide large SA
 Produces ATP for respiratory enzymes to attach
 Matrix – contains protein, lipids, ribosomes, respiratory
enzymes and DNA to produce its own proteins
Chloroplasts  Site of photosynthesis  Chloroplast envelope – controls the entry/exit of materials
 Disc-shaped in/out
 Granal membrane provides  Grana – stacks of thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll
large SA for chlorophyll  Stroma – fluid-filled matrix containing starch grains and all the
attachment enzymes required for photosynthesis
 Contains DNA and ribosomes
to manufacture some of its
own proteins
Endoplasmic  Sheet-like membranes  Rough ER – ribosomes present, provides large SA for protein
Reticulum  Continuous with the nuclear synthesis and a pathway for the transport of materials
membrane  Smooth ER – lacks ribosomes, synthesise and store
 Membrane encloses a network lipids/carbohydrates
of tubules and flattened sacs
called cisternae
Golgi  Modifies proteins, often  Stack of membranes that make cisternae, with vesicles
apparatus adding non-protein
components
 Produces secretory enzymes
(i.e. pancreas)
 Secrete carbohydrates
 Transport, modify and store
lipids
 Form lysosomes
Lysosomes  Hydrolyse material ingested by  Formed from vesicles off the Golgi apparatus that contain
phagocytes proteases and lipases
 Exocytose enzymes to destroy  Contain lysozymes – enzymes that hydrolyse cell walls of
material around the cell certain bacteria
  Digest worn out organelles  Forms phagocytic vesicles to isolate material
 Autolysis
Ribosomes  Small cytoplasmic granules  80S – found in eukaryotic cells, 25nm in diameter
 Found in cytoplasm/Rough ER  70S – found in prokaryotic cells, mitochondria and
 Contain rRNA and protein chloroplasts, slightly smaller
 Site of protein synthesis
Cell Wall  Provides mechanical strength  Microfibrils – made of cellulose that provides strength
to prevent the cell from  Middle lamella – thin layer, which marks the boundary
bursting, due to osmotic lysis between adjacent cells together
 Allow water to pass along
Vacuoles  Make cells turgid  Tonoplast - a single membrane, surrounding the fluid-filled sac
 Contains sugars and aa to act  Contains mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, waste and
as a food store pigments called anthocyanins
 Pigments attract pollinating
insects
Cell specialisation

 Tissues
o Epithelial cells
 Found in animals and consist of sheets of cells
 Line the surfaces of organs
 Often have secretory or protective functions
o Xylem
 Found in plants
 Used to transport water and mineral ions through plants
 Gives mechanical support to the plant
 Organs
o A combination of tissues that are coordinated to perform a common function
o Organ systems:
 Digestive system – digests and processes food, includes salivary glands,
oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, pancreas and liver
 Respiratory system – breathing and gas exchange, includes trachea, bronchi
and lungs
 Circulatory system – pumps and circulates blood, includes heart, arteries
and veins

Prokaryotic cells

 Smaller cells without a nuclear envelope/nucleus

 Contain no membrane-bound organelles
 Food is stored as glycogen granules and oil droplets
 Cytoplasm contains 70S ribosomes for protein synthesis
 Viruses are smaller than bacteria and cannot undergo cell division, instead they replicate
using a host cell

Structure Role
Cell Wall  Made of murein – peptidoglycan
 Physical barrier that excludes substances and protects against
mechanical damage and osmotic lysis
Capsule  Made of mucilaginous slime
  Surrounds cell wall
 Protects bacteria from other cells
 Helps groups of bacteria stick together
Cell-surface  Acts as a differentially permeable layer
membrane  Controls the entry/exit of chemicals
Circular DNA  Possess the genetic information for the replication of cells
 DNA is not associated with proteins
Plasmid  Possess genes that aid survival of bacteria in adverse conditions – i.e.
produces enzymes that hydrolyse antibiotics
 Can reproduce themselves independently
 Often used as vectors in genetic engineering
Flagellum  Used for locomotion
Binary Fission

 Prokaryotic cells divide through binary fission

 Circular DNA replicates and both copies attach to the cell membrane
 Plasmids also replicate
 Cell membrane grows between the two DNA molecules and begins to pinch inwards, dividing
the cytoplasm
 New cell wall forms, the two new cells contain the same circular DNA, but a variable number
of copies of the plasmids

Mitosis

 Produces two genetically identical daughter cells

 Proceeded by interphase, in which DNA replicates
 Prophase
o Chromosomes become visible, initially long thin threads, later thicken and shorten
o Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell, spindle fibres develop (collectively
known as the spindle apparatus)
o Nucleus disappears and nuclear membrane breaks down
 Metaphase
o Chromosomes are seen as two chromatids joined by a centromere
o Microtubules from centrioles attach to centromere
o Move to the middle (equator) of the cell

 Anaphase
o Centromeres divide and spindle fibres pull apart the chromatids
o Chromatids move to each pole
o Process is driven by ATP, which gathers around the spindle fibres
o If chemicals are used that destroy the spindle fibres, then the chromosomes remain
at the equator
 Telophase and cytokinesis
o Chromosomes become longer and thinner again, then disappear leaving chromatin
o Spindle-fibres disintegrate and nucleus reforms
o Finally, the cytoplasm separates through cytokinesis

Cell cycle
  Cells typically spend about 90% of their time in interphase
 Interphase involves:
o G1 – normal cell life (i.e. protein synthesis and respiration)
o S phase – DNA replicated, and ATP stored for Anaphase
o G2 – second growth phase, in which cell is checked for damage and repaired before
mitosis

Cancer

 Rapid uncontrolled growth of cells due to DNA damage that results in a tumour
 Cancer is treated by chemotherapy which prevents DNA replication and inhibits metaphase
 Chemotherapy will damage normal cells, but not to the same degree as cancer cells as cell
division is slower in healthy cells

Transport Across Cell Membranes

Structure of the cell surface membrane

 Most molecules cannot freely move across the membrane because they are:
o Not soluble in lipids
o Too large to pass through protein channels
o Same charge as the protein channels, so are repelled and cannot pass through
o Electrically charged (polar), so cannot pass through to a non-polar membrane
 Fluid-mosaic model of the cell-surface membrane:
o Fluid – individual phospholipids can move relative to each other, gives the
structure flexibility

Structure Description Function

Phospholipids  Hydrophilic head and  Prevent water soluble material
hydrophobic tail entering/leaving the cell
 Allow lipid-soluble substances to enter/leave
 Make the membrane flexible and self-sealing
Proteins  Interspersed throughout  Provide structural support
the membrane  Act as channels transporting water soluble
 Protein channels and material
carrier proteins aid  Allow active transport across the membrane
transport  Form cell-surface receptors
 Help cells to adhere together
 Act as receptors for hormones
Cholesterol  Very hydrophobic  Reduce lateral movement of other molecules
 Pull together the fatty  Make the membrane less fluid at high
acid tails reducing their temperatures
movement  Prevent leakage of water and dissolved ions
Glycolipids  Made up of a  Act as recognition sites
carbohydrate covalently  Help maintain stability of the membrane
bonded to a lipid  Help cells attach and form tissues
Glycoproteins  Carbohydrate chains  Act as recognition sites
attached to many  Help cells attach and form tissues
extrinsic proteins  Allows cells to recognise one another (i.e.
lymphocytes can recognise their own cells)
o Mosaic – proteins that are embedded in the bilayer vary in shape/size/pattern
Diffusion

 Simple diffusion:
o The net movement of molecules or ions from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration, until concentration is evenly distributed
 Facilitated diffusion:
o Still a passive process, relies only on kinetic energy and involves both protein
channels and carrier proteins
o Protein channels – water-filled hydrophilic channels, allow specific water-soluble
ions through. Ions bind to the channel changing its shape
o Carrier proteins – transports larger molecules like glucose, which bind to its surface
changing its shape

Osmosis and Water potential

 Osmosis – the passage of water from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration, through a selectively permeable membrane
 Water potential () – the pressure created by water molecules. Pure water has a water
potential of 0
 Water moves towards a more negative water potential

 of Higher (less negative) Equal Lower (more negative)

external Plants Red Blood Plants Red Blood Plants Red Blood
compared Cells Cells Cells
to cell
solution
Net Enters cell Neither leaves nor enters Leaves cell
movement
of water
State of Swells No change Shrinks
cell
Condition Turgid Haemolysis Incipient Plasmolysis Crenation
of cell plasmolysis
 When the water potential is equal on both sides of the membrane the solution is said to be
in dynamic equilibrium

Active Transport

 The movement of ions into/out of the cell using ATP, against a concentration gradient
 Ions bind to receptor sites on carrier protein, ATP also binds. This changes the shape of the
protein allowing the ion to pass through

Co-transport and absorption in the ileum

 Epithelial cells lining the ileum have microvilli on their CSMs, providing a larger surface area
for absorption
  Glucose molecules move into the blood at the same time as sodium ions that have been
actively pumped into the ileum by the sodium/potassium pump
 The sodium/potassium pump is an example of co-transport it works by:
1. Sodium ions are actively transported out of epithelial cell into the blood
2. This maintains a higher concentration of sodium ions in the lumen of the intestine
than inside the epithelial cells
3. Sodium ions diffuse into the epithelial cells down the concentration gradient,
through co-transport proteins. The protein also carries a glucose molecule with the
sodium
4. Glucose then passes into the blood plasma through facilitated diffusion

2 1

Cell Recognition and the Immune System

Defence mechanisms

 Non-specific – immediate response and the same for all pathogens

o Physical barriers – skin
o Phagocytosis
 Specific – Slower response and specific to each pathogen
o Cell-mediated response – T lymphocytes
o Humoral response – B lymphocytes
 Receptor proteins allow body cells to recognise foreign cells i.e.
o Pathogens
o Transplanted cells
o Toxins from pathogens
o Cancer cells
o Body cells infected by a virus (antigen-presenting cells)
 How do lymphocytes recognise body cells? I hear you ask…
o In the foetus,
 Lymphocytes are constantly colliding with predominately own cells
 Some lymphocytes have receptors that exactly fit body cells
  These lymphocytes die or are supressed
 This leaves lymphocytes that can respond to foreign material
o In adults,
 Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and only encounter self-
antigens
 Any lymphocytes that show an immune response to these antigens undergo
apoptosis before they differentiate into mature lymphocytes
 No clones of these anti-self lymphocytes will appear in the blood
 This leaves lymphocytes that respond to non-self antigens
 Antigens are any part of an organism that is recognised as being non-self, therefore
stimulates an immune response
 Lymphocytes – types of white blood cells produced in the bone marrow
o B lymphocytes – mature in the bone marrow, involved in the humoral response
o T lymphocytes – mature in the thymus gland, involved in the cell-mediated response

Phagocytosis

1. Pathogen releases chemical which attract phagocytes, which then moves down the
concentration gradient towards the pathogen
2. Phagocyte has receptors on its CSM that attaches the pathogen to its surface
3. Lysosomes within the phagocyte migrate towards the phagosome, formed as the pathogen
is engulfed
4. Lysosome releases lysozymes into the phagosome, this hydrolyses the pathogen
5. Hydrolysis products are absorbed or leave the cell by exocytosis

Cell-mediated immunity

1. Pathogens invade body cells or are engulfed by phagocytes

2. Phagocyte places antigens on its surface
3. Receptors on a specific helper T cell (TH cell) fit onto these antigens
4. This process activates the TH cell to divide rapidly by mitosis and form a clone of genetically
identical cells
5. Cloned T cells can:
a. Develop into memory cells – enable rapid future responses to infection
b. Stimulate phagocytes to engulf more pathogens
c. Stimulates B cells to divide and secrete antibodies (clonal selection)
d. Activate cytotoxic/killer T cells (TC cells)
 Cytotoxic cells produce a protein called perforin that makes holes in the CSM of infected
cells
 This makes the cell freely permeable to all substances and the cell dies as a result

Humoral immunity

 Involves B cells that produce one specific type of antigen, these means that there are as
many as 10 million different B cells
 Monoclonal antibodies – A clone of B cells that produces one specific antibody, within each
clone the cells produced develop into one of two types of cell:
 o Plasma cells – secrete antibodies into the blood plasma, only survive a few days, but
can make around 2000 antibodies a second. Part of the primary immune response
o Memory cells – can survive for decades, when they encounter the specific antigens
they rapidly divide and develop into plasma cells and more memory cells. Part of the
secondary immune response
1. Surface antigens of an invading pathogen are taken up by the B cell
2. B cell processes the antigens and presents them on its surface
3. Activated TH cell attach to the antigens on the B cells, this activate the B cells
4. Activated B cells divide by mitosis forming a clone of plasma cells
5. Plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies that are specific to the antigens on the
pathogen
6. Antibody attaches to antigens on pathogens and destroys them
7. Some B cells develop into memory cells, which respond to future infections

Antibodies

 Proteins with specific binding sites, synthesised by B cells

 Each antibody has a specific binding site, that is complementary to one antigen – forms and
antigen-antibody complex
 Antibodies assist in the destruction of bacterial cells by:
o Agglutination – clumping bacterial cells together, makes them easier for phagocytes
to locate
o Markers – stimulate phagocytes to engulf cells
 Monoclonal antibodies – an antibody produced by a single clone of cells
o They have many uses including:
 Direct monoclonal antibody therapy – MAs that are specific to the antigens
on cancer cells are given to the patient, they then block the chemical signals
that stimulate their uncontrolled growth (i.e. Herceptin)
 Indirect monoclonal antibody therapy – attaching a cytotoxic drug to the MA
so that it kills the cancer cell when the MA binds to the antigen
 Medical diagnosis – used to diagnose many diseases (i.e. Influenza, hepatitis
and chlamydia). Men with prostate cancer often produce more PSA, MAs
interact with this antigen allowing a measure of PSA to be obtained
 Pregnancy testing – the placenta produces a hormone called human
chorionic gonadatrophin (hCG) and found in the urine. In a pregnancy kit the
hormone binds to the MA and the coloured complex moves along the strip
o Ethical use of MA:
 Producing MAs uses mice – used to produce the tumour cells
 Some deaths have occurred when MAs are used to treat multiple sclerosis
 When testing drugs people can be harmed
o Producing MAs:
 Mouse is exposed to the non-self material, of which the antibody against is
required
 B cells in the mouse then produce the antibodies, which are extracted from
the spleen
 These B cells are mixed with rapidly dividing tumour cells
 Detergent is added to the mixture to break down the CSM of both types of
cell, enabling them to fuse together and form hybridoma cells
  Hybridomas are then separated under a microscope and cultured to form a
clone, clones are tested to make sure they are producing the right antibody
 Any clone producing the correct antibody is grown on a large scale and
antibodies are extracted from the growth medium

Vaccination

 Immunity takes two forms:

o Passive immunity – the introduction of antibodies from an external source (i.e. anti-
venom and antibodies passed from mother to foetus
o Active immunity – stimulating the production of antibodies from direct contact with
the pathogen
 Natural active immunity – infected with the disease under normal
circumstances
 Artificial active immunity – inducing an immune response, without suffering
symptoms of the disease
 Features of a successful vaccination programme:
o Vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities to immunise most of
the vulnerable population
o Few side effects from the vaccine
o The ability to transport/store the vaccine
o Means of correctly administering the drug
o Must be possible to vaccinate most of the community to achieve herd immunity
 Herd immunity – a sufficiently large proportion of the population is vaccinated, making it
difficult for the pathogen to spread
 Vaccination may not eliminate disease completely:
o Vaccinations fail to induce immunity in people with defective immune systems
o People may develop the disease immediately after vaccination, but there immunity
levels are high enough to prevent it (could still pass it onto others)
o Pathogens mutate, so antigens can suddenly change, as a result the immune system
no longer has the correct antibodies. This is known as antigenic variability
o Maybe be multiple variations of a pathogen, making it impossible to produce an
antibody
o Certain pathogens ‘hide’ from the immune system, by concealing themselves inside
cells or in the intestines
o Some people may object to vaccines for religious reasons
 Ethics of vaccinations:
o Involved the use of animals
o Side effects may cause long lasting harm
o Who should vaccines be tested on?
o Compulsory vaccinations?
o Could money spent on vaccine research be better spent elsewhere?

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

 Reverse transcriptase catalyses the production of DNA from RNA

 HIV belongs to a group of viruses called retroviruses
 HIV often lies dormant for many years after infection
 Following initial infection, HIV replicates by:
o A protein on the HIV binds to another protein called CD4 (found on many cells, most
commonly helper T cells)
o Protein capsid fuses with the CSM, the RNA and enzymes of HIV enter the cell
o HIV reverse transcriptase converts viral RNA to DNA
o Viral DNA is then inserted into the cell’s nucleus and DNA
o Viral DNA is made into mRNA using the cell’s enzymes
o This new DNA codes for viral proteins, so using the cells protein synthesis
mechanisms HIV particles are made
o These particles then break away from the cell and infect other cells
 Symptoms of AIDS
o An uninfected person will have between 800 and 1200 helper T cells per mm 3 of
blood, whereas an infected person will only have 200 mm-3 helper T cells
o With fewer T cells the body cannot stimulate B cells to produce antibodies
o Memory cells are also infected and destroyed, meaning the body cannot produce an
adequate immune response
o The infected person is now susceptible to infection and cancer, it is the secondary
disease that causes death
 ELISA test
o Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay, uses antibodies to detect the presence and
volume of a protein
o Very sensitive – detects very small quantities
o Method:
 Apply the sample to a slide to which all the antigens will attach
 Wash the surface several times, removing any unattached antigens
 Add the antibody that is specific to the antigen being detected, leave the
two to bind together
 Wash the surface, removing excess antigens
 Add a second antibody, with an enzyme attached, that binds to the first
antibody
 Add the colourless substrate, the enzyme will change the colour
 Amount of antigen present is relative to the intensity of the colour
 Antibiotics are ineffective against viral diseases because antibiotics inhibit certain enzymes
required for the synthesis of peptide cross-linkages in bacterial cell walls. As viruses rely on
host cells, antibiotics cannot inhibit metabolic pathways in viruses because there aren’t any
to inhibit