CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION CHAPTER 3

Cell is a structure consist of nucleus surrounded by semi

fluid substance (cytoplasm) and enclosed by a membrane
called cell membrane.
Discovered by Robert Hooke in a thin piece of cork (dead
tissue) obtained from stem of Oak plant. He Calculated over
1 billion Cells in a Cubic inch of Cork.
New born Human baby have 2 trillion Cells. An adult have
60 trillion cells. When we donate blood we give away 5.4
billions Cells. Each day human body Sloughs off (Sheds) and
replaces 1% of its cells that is 600 billions.
A. V leewenhoek (1674) discovered first living Cell in the
form of bacteria.
R.Brown (1831) discovered Nucleus in the Root Cells of
orchid plant.
Cell Theory
Given by schleiden (Botanist)1838, Schwann( zoologist
(1839) and R. Virchow ( pathologist) in 1855.
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells
2. Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
3. New cells arise by division of already existing
cells.
According Schleiden and Schwann cell is a de novo
structure (means new cells arise from non living
material) but Virchow proved that cell is a novo
structure not de novo ( means cells arise from pre
existing cells only)
TECHNIQUES USE IN CELL BIOLOGY
To Know the Structure and function of Cell and its
organelles Various techniques are used like

1. Cell Fractionation
2. Differential Staining
3. Micro dissection
4. Tissue Culture
5. Chromatography
6. Gel Electrophoresis
7. Spectrophotometry
8. Microscopy
9. Micrometry
1.Cell Fractionation
This method is use to Separate Cell organelles on the basis of size and
density. It involves two steps :
1.Homogenization :
It involves grinding of tissue (Similar Cells) in mortar / homogenizer, in
the Presence of Ice Cold medium to release Cellular material (
homogenate).
(for plant cells enzymes pectinase is also use to dissolve middle
lamella)
2.Centrifugation / Sedimentation :
The Setting down of Cellular organelles in a test tube on the basis of
Size and density is called Sedimentation
The homogenate then poured in test tube and kept in a centrifuge
machine for centrifugation. (The centrifuge machine rotations Can be
up to 60,000 Cycles Per minute)
Centrifugation is a Step wise Process, in each step gravitational force /
Centrifuge speed is increased. In beginning lower gravitational force /
Speed of Centrifuge use to Separate heavier/bigger organelles from
Sample and gradually Speed is increases Step wise until the smallest
organelle is separated .
2. Differential Staining :
Most of the biological structures are transparent/
colorless and can not be seen with out staining.
When two Stains (Colors) are used to separate two
Structures this is called differential staining.
Haematoxylin Stain Nucleus and eosin is use to Stain
Cytoplasm.
3. Micro dissection :
When We Cut any Cell or its organelles using
Microscope.
For Example : To isolate abnormal Cells in
lungs/Stomach.
4. Tissue Culture :
It is technique of Cloning (to make duplicate Copy)
of cell / tissue or even whole organism. It was first
Started on Plant Cell b/c plant Cells are totipotent
(Each Cell have full genetic Potential to grow into a
Plant). In 1958 F C .Steward grow Complete Carrot
Plant from Phloem tissue on artificial medium
Containing Sugar, Minerals, Salt, Vit and cytokinin
hormone ( from coconut milk).once these cells
divide mass of undifferentiated cells formed called
callus that later change into root and shoot system
called small plant/ baby plant.
Animal tissue Culturing is use to grow animal Cell or
tissue to check any abnormality in them. Such as
Chromosomal disorder, Cancer
5. Chromatography : This method is use to Separate
different Chemical Compounds (pigments, glucose,
proteins and amino acids) from a mixture.
There are four types of chromatography.
a) Paper Chromatography
b) Thin Layer Chromatography
c) Gas Chromatography
d) High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
Paper Chromatography is the simple and most
common form of chromatography.
In this method there are 2 phases.
Mobile phase: consist of solvent/ water .
Stationary phase : consist of filter paper.
Mechanism : Take solvent/ water in beaker (mobile phase).
Now put drop of ink on bottom of filter paper (Stationary
phase) and dip it into water. As the filter paper absorb
water the different colors in ink spot will separate from
each other as seen in above diagram.
6. Gel Electrophoresis :
Use to Separate molecules(DNA, RNA and protein) on
the basis of Size, Shape, Weight and charge while
passing through the gel consist of agrose or
polyacrylamide. Electric current is passes through the
gel and At the one end of gel there is negative
electrode (cathode) and other end have positive
electrode (anode). Smaller molecules will move faster
than larger molecules.
7. Spectrophotometry :
This technique is use to measuring amount of light
absorbed or transmitted by any molecule.
Sun emit different range of electromagnetic
radiations (Wave length). only small fraction (380-
750nm) of these Waves reaches the earth Called
Visible Spectrum. (leaves absorb only 1% of total
light which falls on them). Remaining light reflected
back b/c of ozone layer. Spectrophotometry is also
use to measure rate of bacterial growth in a medium
(if less light passes through medium(bacterial food)
and more light is scattered means bacterial growth
rate is fast)
8. Microscopy : use of Microscope.
Three attributes (characters) of microscope are very
important.
Magnification : ability of microscope to increase the
size of small object. Magnification power of light
microscope is 10,000 x ( x is multiple ), it means that
light microscope can increase the size of object
10,000 times more than its actual size.
Resolution : clarity of image
Contrast : the visible difference b/w image of a
specimen and its background.it is obtained by
staining.
9. Micrometry : Use of Micrometer along Microscope
to measure size of any object.
 CELL Membrane
Membrane that Covers cytoplasm. Present in all Cells
(7nm thick). Also called Plasma membrane, Surface
membrane, Plasma lemma, Cytoplasmic membrane.
Neuron Cell……… Neurolemma
Muscle Cell ( skeletal + cardiac ) ………….Sarcolemma
(b/c these muscles are involved in rapid transmission of
electrical impulses for contraction)
Chemical Composition : According to STB (Most of cell
membrane consist of 50% protein and 50% lipids)
a. Protein : 60-80% includes various Proteins
(Structural + Functional)
b. Lipids : 20-40%. Includes Phospholipid bilayer,
Cholesterol and sterol / steroid. (50% in animal cells)
c. Carbohydrates : 5-10% (oligosaccharides as
glycoproteins and glycolipids).
Structure of plasma membrane
1.Unit membrane model ( in 1959 but Rejected )
2.Fluid Mosaic Model (Widely accepted)
Given by Jonathan singer and girth Nicholson in
1972.
protein is not only present at surface but also deeply
penetrated inside phospholipid bilayer.
Functions of cell membrane lipids :
Cell membrane has fluid nature. Lipids Control the fluid
nature of cell membrane. Higher ratio of Un Saturated
lipids increases fluidity and make Cell membrane more
flexible.
Functions of proteins
(Intrinsic Proteins)
Takes Part in Transport of molecules.
Small molecules, non Polar, un charged molecules like
O2, CO2,Fatty acid and lipid soluble hormones Can easily
cross the Cell membrane with out any intrinsic Protein)
Where as large molecules, Polar and charge molecules
cross the Cell with the help of Intrinsic Protein.
Types of Intrinsic proteins ( 3 Types )
Channel Protein : These Proteins forms a channel
that serve as Passage way for molecule such as
Aquaporin (Passes water), Na+ channels (Passes
Na+), K+ channels (passes K+) .
Channel Proteins involved in passive Transport
(Facilitated diffusion).
Carrier Proteins : Transport Glucose, Amino acids
and Nucleosides by binding with it through Passive
Transport (Facilitated diffusion)
Pump Proteins : It is modified form of Carrier
Protein. It transport Na+, K+ and also glucose from
lower conc: to higher Conc : with the help of ATP.
(It is called Active transport )
Large molecules like protein hormones(insulin) and
enzymes(amylase) cannot move by passive transport
or pump proteins. Instead, they are transported by
Cytosis (endocytosis and exocytosis).
Endocytosis : By In folding of Cell membrane in the
form of Vesicle/vacuole.
a. Pinocytosis : Cell drinking Process. movement in
the form of liquid such as Hormones, Enzymes.
b. Phagocytosis : Cell eating Process movement in
Solid form. Such as engulfment of bacteria by WBCs.
Exocytosis : moving large molecules out of the cell by
Exfolding of cell membrane.
Extrinsic Proteins : Loosely attached, work as
enzyme and receptors.
Most of the antigen ( A and B) present on RBC Membrane
are glycoprotein and some of them are glycolipid in nature.
Glycoproteins acts as receptors
like for hormones and other molecules where as glycolipid
involved in cell recognition and cell communication.
Eukaryotic cell consist of 4 parts
1.Cell wall 2.Cell membrane 3.Nucleus
4.Cytoplasm

CELL WALL :
is the Nonliving (b/c metabolically inactive and does
not response to external stimuli), Rigid and
Permeable Covering of Algae, Plant Cell, fungi and
bacteria.
Plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose ,
pectin lignin , ca and p. Material for the synthesis of
cell wall secreted by protoplasm. Golgi bodies also
take part in formation of cell wall.
Layers of plant cell wall
Plant Cell Wall Consist of 3 layers.

Middle lamella (First Formed) :

It is first layer of cell to be formed during Cell division
(Cytokinesis).
During cytokinesis in plant cells, a cell plate forms between
the two daughter nuclei. This cell plate is formed by the
fusion of Golgi-derived vesicles carrying pectin and other
cell wall materials like calcium and magnesium. Once the
cell plate matures, it becomes the middle lamella, which is
primarily composed of calcium pectate and magnesium
pectate.
It is Common layer b/w two cells and acts as Cementing
layer ( holding two adjacent cells ). it is 1 μm thick.
Cells that have large intercellular Spaces don’t have middle
lamella such as parenchyma.
Primary wall (Second Layer):
After the middle lamella is established, each daughter cell
begins to secrete cellulose 25%, hemicellulose 50%, and
small amount of pectin and proteins to form the primary cell
wall on both sides of the middle lamella.
Hemicellulose is hetero polysaccharide consist of
xylose,arabinose ( pentose ) and glucose, galactose, and
mannose (hexose).
It is called true wall of Cell wall b/c it is Present in all Plant
Cells. In young and growing cells it is thin and elastic but
when Cells get mature it becomes thick and rigid.
(1.3μm thick)
Linear chains of cellulose molecules form microfibrils that
are arranged in Criss Cross arrangement that increase the
Strength of cell wall.
According to book primary wall is first layer of cell wall
to be formed (after middle lamella / after cell division).
Secondary wall (If Present - Last Layer):
formed b/w cell membrane and primary wall. Found in
some cells that become dead (b/c dead cells need more
thickness) on maturity like sclerenchyma fibers ,
sclereids, vessels and tracheids. It Consist of Cellulose,
hemicellulose, inorganic salt, Silica, waxes and lignin. It
is 5 to 10 μm thick and rigid (that’s why optically more
active means can rotate light).
Plasomodesmata : at some places in cell wall deposition
of cell wall material does not occur that result in pores
called plasmodesmata ( makes cytoplasmic
communication).
NUCLEUS
called Brain/ Heart / master/ controller of cell.
discovered by R. Brown in root cells of orchid plant.
Generally one nucleus in cell but in paramecium two
nuclei and in protozoan Opalina many nuclei are
present. Nucleus is Present in almost all eukaryotic
cells except mature RBC ,tracheids, vessels of xylem,
sieve tube elements of phloem.
(xylem is dead and phloem is living ).
Nucleus Consist of
1. Nuclear envelop
2. Nuclear lamina
3. Nucleoplasm
4. Chromatin network
5. Nucleolus
1.Nuclear Envelop double membrane covering of nucleus .
Both membranes consist of phospholipid bilayer and
proteins. Outer membrane is continuous with RER and have
ribosomes on it.
The space between two membrane is called peri nuclear
space ( 10 to 50 nm)
Nuclear pores on nuclear envelop pores are present consist
of Protein Called Nucleoporins. Egg cell has 30,000 pores /
nucleus and in immature erythrocyte has 3-4 pores /
nucleus.
These Pores regulate Nucleo cytoplasmic exchange of
material.
2. Nuclear lamina it is net like array of proteins that gives
mechanical support.
3.Nucleoplasm/ karyolymph / karyoplasm / nuclear
matrix : It is transparent jelly like mixture of water,
Proteins like histone and non histone , Enzymes like
(DNA,RNA Polymerase and ATPase), free nucleotides
and metal ions like mg+ , ca+.
4.Chromatin network/ Nuclear reticulum :
In Nucleoplasm a net work of loosely Connected
threads is Present called Chromatin network. During
Cell division Chromatin network Condensed and
appears in the form of threads called Chromosomes
that Consist of DNA (30-40%), Protein (50-65%) and
RNA (1-10%).
5.Nucleolus also called nucleus of nucleus b/c of its
shape.
Non membranous Structure where Ribosomes are
Produced that's why called ribosomal factory.
rRNA also synthesized by nucleolus.
In one nucleus only one or many Nucleoli are present.
Each Nucleolus Consist of 2 Parts.
Peripheral /outer region granular and Contain precursor
Ribosomal subunits.
Central /Fibrillar region Contain RNA AND DNA called
rDNA (DNA that makes r RNA)
Metacentric : v shaped with equal arms
Submetacentric : L shaped with unequal arms
Acrocentric/ subtelocentric : J shaped with one
arm very long other very short
Telocentric: i / rod shaped with only one arm. Not
found in humans . Found in mice
Cytoplasm Term first used by R.V Kolliker in 1868.
Definition : It is define as living material b/w Nuclear
membrane and Cell membrane of eukaryotic cell and whole
material inside cell membrane in prokaryotic cell.
Physically, cytoplasm is divided into two parts.
Cytosol / Endoplasm
Inner Part of cytoplasm to wards nucleus is less viscous
(Fluid / liquid like) ,where organelles like mitochondria,
ribosomes, ER, lysosomes etc are present.
Most of chemical reactions like glycolysis, glycogenesis,
glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis , protein synthesis occurs in
cytosol.
Cytogel /Ectoplasm
outer Part of cytoplasm towards Cell membrane is more
viscous (Jelly like) that provide structural support.
Chemically cytoplasm consist of 90% water that
forms two types of solution with other bio
chemicals.
True Solution : Consist of water and small molecules
like Salt, A. acid, Sugar, fatty acid, nucleotides,
vitamins and gases.
Colloidal Solution : Consist of water and large
molecules such as lipids, Proteins, Starch, Glycogen.

Cyclosis (active streaming movement)

is the movement of the cytoplasm within a cell by
using ATP. It helps in the distribution of nutrients,
organelles, and other materials inside the cell.
Cytoplasmic organelles :
Membrane bound organelles :
ER ,G. bodies, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes,
Glyoxysomes, Vacuoles are covered by single
membrane where as Mitochondria and Plastids are
covered by double membrane.
Non Membrane bound organelles : Ribosomes ,
centriole.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
First reported by Porter in chick embryo
cell in 1945.
Absent in Prokaryotic Cells. Present in all
Eukaryotic Cells except mature RBC and
sperm cell (sperm loses most of its
cytoplasmic organelles, including the ER
and Golgi apparatus, to reduce weight and
become more efficient for movement).
Definition :
ER is a network of interconnected, tube-like
(SER), and flattened sac-like (RER) structures
called Cisternae. They are arise from outer
membrane of Nuclear envelope and extend up
to cell membrane like network of roads of a
country. Consist of lipoprotein (Phospholipid
bilayer + Protein). All membranous organelles
originate from the Endoplasmic Reticulum
(ER), except for mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
All membranous organelles originate from the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), except for
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Rough ER / Granulated ER :
The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) has
ribosomes attached to its outer surface, which faces
the cytoplasm.
It is a more stable structure than the Smooth ER
(SER) due to its higher phospholipid and protein
content.
Regions in the cytoplasm rich in RER and ribosomes
are referred to as Ergastoplasm. In nerve cells, these
regions are known as Nissl’s bodies, which are
involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitter
proteins essential for nerve function.
RER is highly developed in cells specialized for
protein production and secretion, including:
Pancreatic cells – synthesize digestive enzymes.
White blood cells (B-lymphocytes) – produce antibodies.
Liver cells (hepatocytes) – synthesize plasma proteins like
Fibrinogen (Blood clotting), Albumin (Maintains osmotic
pressure, transports substances like hormones , fatty acid
and drugs)
Goblet cells (in the stomach and intestines) – secrete
mucus that is glycoprotein in nature provide lubrication
and protection by trapping pathogens.
Salivary gland cells – produce digestive enzymes.
RER is called the "Membrane Factory“ for the cell
because it produces both proteins and lipids needed for
cellular membranes (but main job of SER is lipid
processing and detoxification).
Smooth ER / Agranulated ER
(with out Ribosomes)
SER is involved in lipid formation, including steroid hormones.
It is abundant in cells of the testes and ovaries, where it
synthesizes hormones such as: Testosterone (in testes by laydig
cells) Estrogen & Progesterone (in ovaries).
SER is abundant in glycogen-storing cells (liver & muscle) .
liver cells store glycogen and convert it into glucose to release
into the blood by using glucose-6-phosphatase .
Muscle cells, however, lack glucose-6-phosphatase, so they do
not directly release free glucose into the blood. Instead, they
use glycogen for their own energy needs during muscle
contraction.
In muscle cells, SER functions as the sarcoplasmic reticulum,
which stores calcium ions (Ca²⁺).During muscle contraction,
Ca²⁺ is released to trigger the contraction process.
In liver cells, SER plays a major role in detoxifying
drugs, alcohol, and toxins, making harmful
substances more soluble for excretion.
After cell division, the nuclear membrane reappears,
and it arises from SER membranes.
Proteins synthesized in RER are transported to the
Golgi body via SER, acting as an intracellular highway
for molecular transport.
SER converts excess cholesterol into Vitamin D
essential for bone health.
The membranes of both RER and SER increase the
surface area for metabolic activities due to presence
of enzymes like sucrase, Glucose 6 phosphatase on
Membrane of RER .
ER provides mechanical support to the cell,
maintaining its structure and organization.
Both types of ER (RER & SER) are involved in the
export and import of molecules, such as:
RER → Protein synthesis & transport
SER → Lipid synthesis & transport.
While most cells have both types of ER, some
specialized cells, like skeletal muscle cells, contain
only SER, known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes
Non membranous, roughly spherical, small and
granular bodies associated with Protein synthesis
(Protein factories).
Consist of rRNA and protein that’s why called
Ribo nucleo Protein Particles. Found in Eukaryote
and Prokaryote cells. They are Millions Per Cell.
Eukaryotic ribosome have 40% rRNA + 60% protein
and Prokaryotic ribosome have 60% rRNA + 40%
protein (more than 50 different types of protein).
Arise from Nucleolus in eukaryotic where as in
prokaryotic cell ribosomes are synthesized in
cytoplasm .
They are also found in mitochondria and chloroplast
(70S), thats why ribosomes are also called organelle
within organelle.

Structure
Consist of Two Unequal Sub units.
Larger Submit : Dome Shaped. It is attached with ER.
Amino acids added to larger Sub unit during Protein
Synthesis. (It Catalysis the formation of Peptide
bonds b/w Amino acids) It Contain Peptidyl
transferase.
Smaller Sub unit : It is oval / Cap like. It is attached
with mRNA. (It decodes mRNA during Protein
synthesis).
Size of eukaryotic ribosome is larger than
prokaryotic ribosome.
Sedimentation value ( Svedberg value) of eukaryotic
ribosome is 80S.
Which indicate how fast ribosomes sediment(
setelled at bottom) during centrifugation.
smaller sub unit = 40S .
Larger sub unit = 60s.
Sedimentation value ( Svedberg value) of prokaryotic
ribosome is 70S.
smaller sub unit = 30S .
Larger sub unit = 50s.
The difference in value occurs due to change in shape
and size of ribosome when both sub units combine.
Two sub units attached with each other via
mg+ ions or by salt bonds at the time of
protein synthesis. (Salt bond forms b/w
phosphate group of one ribosomal sub unit
and amino group of amino acid of other
ribosomal sub unit.
Polysome (Polyribosome)
When Multiple ribosomes attached along the
single mRNA to make large number of similar
proteins.
Golgi complex
Discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898 in nerve
cells (neurons) of an owl.
The Golgi complex, also known as the Golgi
apparatus or Golgi body / Golgisome in Animal cell
but Dictyosome in plant cell, is a eukaryotic cell
organelle composed of stack (group) of flattened
sacs called cisternae, which are arranged in a parallel
manner and lack ribosomes (Structure of G. body is
differ from RER whose Cisternae are interconnected
and have ribosome).
They arise from SER.
Why is the Golgi Body in Plants Called a
Dictyosome?
b/c of Structural Differences.
In animal cells single, well-organized stack of
flattened sacs (cisternae) is present called Golgi
body.
(In animal cell Single large stack of cisternae
present)
where as in plant cells many small , separated
stacks of cisternae are present.
(In plant cell many small stacks of cisternae are
present) .
Each stack of cisternae is called dictyosome.
The Golgi apparatus has two distinct faces/ ends :
Cis End : Located near the Nucleus / ER(more to RER)
( Proximal end / Forming end /Convex/ Outer end
(curve outward) /Receiving end / Entry end ).
It receives vesicles from the ER containing newly
synthesized proteins and lipids.
It is called forming face b/c new cisternae for Golgi
body forms here.
Trans End : Located near the Cell membrane
(Distal end /Maturing end/Concave/ Inner ( curve
inward) /Shipping end /Exit face/ ).
Protein after modification comes out from this end
in the form of secretory vesicle.
Functions
●They are mainly found in glandular cells
where they perform the function of collection,
packaging and distribution of cellular
secretions like proteins and lipids.
The Golgi modifies these proteins by adding
carbohydrates (glycosylation) or phosphates
(phosphorylation) and then packages them
into vesicles for transport within or outside the
cell.
For this function they are also called post
office /Traffic Police of Cell.
●Cell wall material like cellulose and chittin
are secreted by dictysome, This material is
use to form cell plate and cell wall ( Middle
lamella ).
(During cell wall formation, cell wall forming
material in the form of Golgi vesicles arrange
at the equator of the Cell and fuses with each
other to form Phragmoplast which Change
into Cell Plate and from Cell Plate the cell wall
( middle lamella )arises.
●Give rise Lysosomes, Peroxysomes and
Glyoxysomes.
Lysosomes
(Also Called Waste disposal of Cell / Suicidal bag)
Discovered by Deduve in 1949 in liver cells of rat.
They are Small spherical bodies Covered by Single
membrane, arise from G.bodies, Contain 40
different types of digestive enzymes include
proteases, lipases, nucleases etc that work in 4 to
4.5 PH to break macromolecules in the Cell. Found
in Animal Cells ( most abundant in phagocytic cells
like neutrophils ) and some fungi Cells.
Absent in Plant Cells, Algae and Prokaryote (In plant
and algae cells function of Lysosome is Performed
by vacuoles and in prokaryotes by proteasomes).
Types of lysosomes (called polymorphic cytoplasmic
organelle)
A. Primary Lysosomes : Newly formed Lysosome
before start of its function (inactive lysosome).
B. secondary Lysosomes /digestive Food vacuole :
In order to Perform its function Primary lysosome
fuses with either endosomes/ phagosomes /
autophgosomes and becomes secondary lysosomes.
Endosomes (endocytosis) single membrane bound vesicle
contain fluid and small to medium sized molecules that
eventually fuse with P. lysosomes for degradation.
Phagosomes (phagocytosis) single membrane bound
Vesicles contain large particles like bacteria that eventually
fuse with P.lysosomes for degradation.
Autophagosomes (autophagy)
Double membrane bound Vesicles that contain damaged
/ dead organelles of cells like mitochondria
(10 days life span) and misfolded proteins that
eventually fuse with P.lysosomes for degradation.
C. Tertiary lysosomes / Residual bodies/Excretory
vacuole/ Contractile vacuole) :
When digested food is absorbed in cytoplasm from Sec :
lysosome and it contain only undigested food in it, is
called Tertiary lysosome. (In unicellular organism this
undigested food is released out side the body by
Exocytosis.
In Multicellular Animals some waste is remained in the
Cell in the form of Lipofucin (Yellow-brown Pigment).
FUNCTIONS
1. Intracellular digestion Digestion of foreign substances
(bacteria, food particles) inside the cell. This process is
also called heterophagy.
2. Extracellular digestion lysosomes of osteoclast cells
( bone eating cells ) dissolve unwanted parts of bone by
releasing enzymes out of cell in matrix.
Fungi also do extracellular digestion.
3. Autophagy process of eating damaged/ dead
organelles of cells.
4.Autolysis Self killing of unwanted cell (apoptosis/
programmed cell death ).Due to this act lysosome also
called Suicidal bag.
5. Crinophagy (Digestion of excess hormones of
Endocrine glands by lysosome)
Lysosomal Storage diseases :
Complications occurs due to missing of any lysosomal
enzymes that result in accumulation of particular
substance (lipid and glycogen) within cell.

1. Tay Sacch's disease :

Mental retardation, blindness and death by age 3. It's
gene is located on chromosome # 15 that form
hexosaminidase acts on gangliosides.

2. Gaucher's disease :
Most Common form of L. S. diseases. liver and spleen
enlargement, erosion of long bones, Mental retardation
in infantile (Young babies).
Chromosome #21…….β-Glucocerebrosidase…….
Glucocerebroside.
3. Krabbe's disease :
Loss of Myelin (fat) on nerve cell , Mental
retardation, death by Age 2.
Chromosome # 14………Galactocerebrosidase ……….
Galactocerebroside.
Above all 3 diseases are related with storage of
Sphingolipid.

4. Glycogenesis type II disease

(Glycogen storage disease) Liver and Muscles are
damaged due to accumulation of Glycogen in
Lysosomes of these cells. Chromosome #17……….
Acid Alpha-Glucosidase ………………. Glycogen.
Peroxisomes and Glyoxysomes (Microbodies)
Peroxisomes : De Duve in liver cells of rat
Single membrane bound Structures. Arise from G. bodies.
Found in Animal, Plant and Fungi Cells. It Contain different
oxidative Enzymes like Peroxidase, Catalase, glycolic acid
oxidase etc.
Functions : Detoxification of toxic Substances (Alcohol)
Peroxidase Catalase
Alcohol →→→→H202 (Toxic) →→ →→ H20 +0
Lipid Metabolism like oxidation of Fatty acid, Formation and
transport of Cholestrol, Isoprenoid units and Phospholipids
Such as Plasmalogen which in found in brain and heart
tissues.
In Animals they are most abundantly found in liver and
Kidney Cells as well as in the cells of kangroo and camels
which store fats as reserve food and water.
In Plant Peroxysomes are involved in
Photorespiration. (Respiratory Process in which
many plants take up O2 and give up Co₂ in the
Presence of Sunlight).

Glycolic acid oxidase.

Glycolate →→ →→ Glycine (A.Acid)
This step of Photorespiration Occurs in Peroxisomes
in Plants.
Glyoxysomes
Discovered by Harry Beever in 1960 in castor oil plant,
They are single membrane-bound organelles that originate
from Golgi bodies.
Glyoxysomes contain specific enzymes like catalase and
glycolic acid oxidase that play a role in the Glyoxylate Cycle, a
modified form of krebs cycle (Glyoxylate Cycle invloves
conversion of fatty acid into sugar to provide energy for
seedlings). They are temporary structures that appear only
during germination of lipid-rich seeds (e.g., soybean, castor oil
seeds) , as seedlings develop into mature plants glyoxysomes
disappears.
Absent in Lipid-poor seeds (e.g., pea seeds), as these seeds
primarily rely on stored carbohydrates rather than lipids for
energy.
For these reasons they are also called specialized peroxisomes
in plant cells
Mitochondria
first observed by Kolliker (1857) in human muscle cells
and later named “bioblasts” by Altmann in 1890.
Benda (1898) use term Mitochondria.
GK. Mitos= thread , Chondrion = granule
They are small (0.5-1 μm in diameter and 1-10 μm long)
thread or granule like either spherical or elongated
(Rod) like organelles Present in all eukaryotic Cells
except mature RBC and dead xylem Cells.
They are called Semi-autonomous bodies b/c they Can
Self replicate (binary fission) , have own DNA, RNA,
Ribosomes,Enzymes and Can make some of own
Protein.
Chondriome : All mitochondria in cell Collectively Called
Chondriome.
Other names of Mitochondria
Chondriosom
Power house of cell
Energy generator of Cell
ATP mill in Cell
Storage batteries within cell
Cell within Cell
Most busy and active organelle in cell
Centre of Aerobic Respiration
(kreb’s cycle and fatty acid metabolism).
Mitochondria are covered by double membrane.
Outer membrane is smooth, have pores (porins) and is
permeable.
Inner membrane is selectively permeable and folded
inward ( folds are called cristae)
Inner surface of cristae have granular structures called
oxysomes / F particles/ Elementary particles which are
actually ATP synthase enzymes.
In F particles F stands for factor. F particle consist of two
parts, F0 that facilitate proton transport and F1 particle
involved in ATP formation from ADP and Pi.
If outer membrane is removed then mitochondria is
called mitoplast.
Inside the cristae, fluid is present called matrix which
contain DNA, RNA, Ribosomes, Enzymes .
Plastids
are Double membranous, Self replicating,
Semi autonomous bodies (like mitochondria )
in Plant and algae Cells. Absent in Animals and
Prokaryotic cells.
Pro Plastids All Plastids are arise from a Precursor
double membranous Colorless Structure called Pro plastid.
Pro plastids are found in Meristematic cells (Dividing cells).
In mature cells proplastids develop into either leucoplast OR
chloroplast (may develop into chromoplast) depending on
environmental conditions.
Leucoplast : Colorless Plastids, found in Underground
and food Storage Parts of Plant Such as Roots, Stem
and seeds. Their main function is to Store food.
Based upon food Substance they store, leucoplast
Can be of 3 types.
A. Amyloplast Store Starch
B. Elaioplast store lipids.
C. Aleuroplast / Proteinoplast store Protein.

Etioplast : special type of plastid found in seedlings,

develop in the absence of light and Change into
Chloroplast on exposure to light.
Chromoplast :
Found in Colorful Parts of Plant other than green like
Petals of flower, Cover of fruit. (having carotenoid and
xanthophyll pigments)
They help in Pollination by attracting insects and also
attract birds for Seed dispersal.
Chloroplast :
Found in green Parts of Plants like leaves and Some
Stems. It is Called Site of Photosynthesis / Energy
Converting organelle/ Kitchen of Plant Cell.
It works like Solar Pannels (that Convert Solar energy in
electrical energy but chloroplast Convert Solar energy
into Chemical energy.
Chloroplast contain Rubisco enzyme used in Calvin cycle.
(most abundant enzyme and protein in nature)
Thylakoid :
Disc Shaped double membrane that Contain
Chlorophyll on its Surface.
Light reaction of photosynthesis occurs here.
Granum :
50 or more than 50 thylakoids pile up to form
granum. ( 40 to 60 grana are found in each
chloroplast
Inter granum/ stroma lamella :
(large Thylakoid with out chorophyll)
Stroma :
fluid in which dark reaction occurs.
Vacuoles:
Single Membrane bound (in plant cells membrane is
called Tonoplast which means stretching membrane
and is Selectively permeable. Tonoplast is absent in
animal cell vacuole and called membrane) , non
protoplasmic organelles (don’t contain cytoplasmic
material Like ER,G.B) arise from G.b, ER and Cell
Membrane. Found in Eukaryotic Cells.
In young Plant Cell and animal cell many small
vacuoles are Present but in mature Plant Cell they
are Combine to form one Vacuole / Central vacuole
that have Solution known as Cell Sap.
In animal cells they are formed temporary only at
the time of need.
Functions : store nutrients, water.
maintain Turgor pressure that is essential in maintaining structure and
shape of plant cell.
Centriole : Non-membranous, rod-shaped,
paired and Self-replicating organelle located outside
the nuclear membrane. Found in Animal Cells, Fungi
like Protoctists (Slime mold and Water molds) and
lower Plants (Bryophytes).
Absent in Fungi, higher Plants and Prokaryotes .
Both centrioles are positioned at a right angle to the
other .
The cytoplasm surrounding the centrioles is called
the centrosphere.
The centriole and centrosphere together form the
centrosome.
Each centriole is made up of 27 microtubules, arranged as 9
sets of triplet microtubules.
Functions:
● Forms spindle fibers and astral rays during cell division in
animal cells.
Spindle fibers help to separate chromosomes during
mitosis and meiosis.
Astral rays stabilize the
spindle apparatus and
anchor the centrosome
to the cell membrane.
● Centriole Gives rise to
cilia and flagella, playing
a role in cell movement.
In cross section, Microtubule Arrangement in Centriole is 9+0 (9 sets
of triplet microtubules , no central pair of Microtubule).
Cilia and Flagella :
Both have same internal structure but they vary in
Size, number and Pattern of movement.
Flagella are larger (50-75μm) , few in number and
found in both Eukaryote and Prokaryote.
Cilia are Shorter (10-25 μm), many in number, Found
in Eukaryote only.
Origin of cilia and flagella :
Both originated from the basal body (also called
Kinetosome) Which is modified form of Centriole.
Basal body formation : A centriole migrate to cell
membrane and becomes basal body.
The basal body acts as template to organize the
growth of new microtubule which extend outward
from cell membrane and becomes Axoneme
( core structure along the length of cilia and flagella)
The basal body (kinetosome) always has a 9+0
arrangement (9 triplets, no central pair), as it is
derived from the centriole (9+ 0) (9 triplets, no
central pair).
When cilia and flagella are non-motile (primary
cilia), In cross section their Axoneme has a 9+0
arrangement of microtubules (9 doublets of
microtubules in the periphery, no central pair).
Non motile cilia and flagella are acts as sensory
structures.
When cilia and flagella are motile, their Axoneme
has a 9+2 arrangement (9 doublets in the periphery
and 2 singlets in the center).
Internally motile cilia and flagella has two types of protein structures , Dynein
Arms proteins called motor proteins facilitate movement of cilia ,flagella and Radial
Spokes Connect the outer doublets to the central microtubules, maintaining
stability.
Cytoskeleton
A network of different protein fibers in cytoplasm that
provide structural frame work to cell.
There are three types of cytoskeletal elements.
Microfilaments
more slender( elongated ) Thin and flexible filaments (7 nm
in diameter). Composed mainly of actin protein (sometimes
associated with myosin in muscle cells).Can assemble and
disassemble rapidly to allow dynamic cell movement.
Functions: Muscle Contraction → actin and myosin
Cell Shape Changes → Helps in cell stretching and
contraction. (Cyclosis) → Movement of cytoplasm inside
cells).
Cytokinesis → divide the cytoplasm during mitosis/meiosis.
Amoeboid Movement → Forms pseudopodia for movement
in Amoeba and white blood cells (WBCs).
Intermediate filaments
Intermediate filaments (IFs) are solid, rope-like structures with a
diameter of 8-12 nm (intermediate in size between microfilaments
and microtubules).
Unlike microfilaments (actin) and microtubules (tubulin), IFs are more
stable and do not undergo rapid assembly and disassembly.
IFs are composed of different types of proteins, including keratins,
vimentins, desmins, neurofilaments, and lamins,
(according to STB these proteins collectively called vimentins but its
wrong)
Functions of Intermediate Filaments
Maintain cell shape by providing mechanical strength.
Provide structural support to the nuclear envelope and plasma
membrane (e.g., lamins )
Structural Support to axons in nerve cells (e.g., neurofilaments).
Help in cell adhesion and attachment of muscle cells (e.g., desmin in
muscle tissue connect myofibril with cell membrane).
Microtubules
Hollow cylindrical /tube like (25 nm in diameter).
Composed of α-tubulin and β-tubulin protein
subunits. Arranged in 13 longitudinal rows called
protofilaments, forming the microtubule structure.
Can rapidly assemble and disassemble, allowing
dynamic cellular functions
Function
Produce Spindle fibers during Cell division to move
Chromosomes .
Also involved in transport of cell wall material
outside the cell in plants .
Also involved in Formation of Centriole, Basal body,
Cilia and Flagella